i 

mi 



111 



, ELEMENTS^ 

Ly ^</7(^ or c /c 

F ANCIKNT AND MODKIIX. 

TO WtlCB ABB AVVKD 

A COMPARATIVE VIEW OF 

XCIEXTAXD MODERX GEOGRAPHY, 
A TABLE OF CflRONOI.lX; V . 



Bt AU:X. FRVSRU T\TLEIi, 
-ttoru»oR or aisTOKT 151 t«> t-niTBiirrT or kdixicroh. 



FROM THE SEVr.«rTH BRITISH rf>IT!0?». 



THE HISTOIIV CO.NTINUKl) 

iiii 'fir ('Jn<f nt the Srvtntemth Ctntury to the (ieneral Pearr 
of Europe in 1815. 



Bt THOMAS HnHIUNS, AM. 

VI^ItrrtR Of 1MB UO«rU. IX BAJT-WI1ID»UI, < 'twv 



yKlV-YORK 

BLISITCD BV C. PUVCKIXCK, D. D. 83IITB, k C. LONC 
Omrfe L»nf, Printer. 

11' rv 



DISTRICT OF CONNECTICUT, as. 
;^^**« JJE IT IlEMEMEEREl) ; That on the eleventh day of Novembeir, in the 
* t fovty-third year oi tlie Independence oi the Unitt-d States ot America, SA- 

•L.S. * MUEL G. GOODRICH or the said District hath deposited in this office the 
**»*♦»* t't*^ of * Rook, tht light whi-reo; he claims as Proprietor, in the words lollow- 
ing, to wit, 
" Elements ot General History. Ancient and Modern To whicli are added, A Compa- 
lativeView or Aiiciciit and Modern Geography, and a Table ot Chronology By Alex. 
Fraser T>ller, F. R. S E. rTorcssOTt-irf-Hi»t««,y Jn the University oi Edinburgh From 
the Seventh British Edition. The History continued .'ro«v the close ol the Stventeenth 
Centur) to the General Peace oi Europe in 18 15. By Thomas liobbins, A. M. Minis- 
ter of 'je gospel in Ea>t-Windsor, Conn " 

In contormity to the Act 01 the Congress of the UNITED STATES entitled, ' An 
" Act for the encouragement of learning, by securing the copies of Maps, Charts and . 
* ' Books, to the authors and proprietors of such copies, during the times therein men" 
' tioned" 

R l; INGERSOLL, 
Clok of the Distnct oj Connecticut. 
A true eepy of Record, examined and sealed by me. 

R. I INGERSOLL, 
Clerk of the District of Connecticvt. 

Brown tJmver«ity Library 



PREFACE 

TO THE FIRST EDITION OF TYTLER's ELEMENTS OF HISTORY. 

X HE following Woik contains the Outlines of a course of 
Lectures on General History, delivered for many years in the 
University of Edinburgh, and received with a portion of the 
public approbJition ampl}^ sufficient to compensate the labours 
of the Author. He began to compose these Elements prin- 
cipally with the view of furnishing an aid to the students at- 
tending those Lectures ; but soon conceived, that by giving 
a little more amplitude to their composition, he might render 
the Work of more general utility. As now given to the Pub- 
lic, he would willingly flatter himself, it may be not only ser- 
viceable to Youth, in furnishing a regular plan for the prose- 
cution of this most important Study, but useful even to those 
who have acquired a competent knowledge of General Histo- 
ry from the perusal of the Works of detached Historians, and 
who wish to methodize that knowledge, or even to refresh 
their memory on material facts and the order of events. 

In the composition of these Eiement-s, the Author has en- 
deavoured to unite with the detail of facts so much of reflec- 
tion, as to aid the mind in the formation of rational views of 
the causes and consequences of events, as well as of the po- 
licy of the actors ; but he has anxiously guarded against that 
speculative refinement which has sometimes entered into 
works of this nature ; which, professing to exhibit the Phi- 
losophy or the Spirit of History, are more fitted to display 
the writer's ingenuity as a Theorist, or his talents as a Rhe- 
torician, than to instruct the Reader in the more useful 
knowledge of Historical Facts. 

As the progress of the Human Mind forms a capital object 
in the study of History, the State of the Arts and Sciences, 
the Religion, Laws, Government, and Manners of Nations, 
are material parts, even in an elementary work of th's n;i- 
ture. The History of Literature is a most important article 
in this study. The Author has therefore endeavoured to 
give to each of these topics its due share of attention ; and 
in that view, tliey are separately treated, in distinct sections, 

at particular periods. Of the defects of this Work the 

Author is more sensible than perhaps an3' other person can 
be. Of any merits it may possess beyond those of simpli- 
city and perspicuity, those are the best judges who have an 
extensive knowledge of the subject, and who know the dif- 
ticulty of giving general views, and of analysing a science so 
comprehensive and complicated as Universal History. 

ALEX. ERASER TYTLER. 

Edin burgh , April \80h 



CONTENTS OF PART FIRST 



INTRODUCTION. 



Advantages arising from the study of History, and nxore particularly 

from prosecuting it according to a regular plan, 
Plan of the course, 

ANCIENT HISTORY. 



Page, 



12 
14 



Earliest authentic Accounts of the History of the World, 17 
Considerations on the Nature of the first Governments, and 
on the Laws, Customs, Arts, and Sciences of the early 

Ages, 18 

Of tiie Eg;yptians, . . t - - - - 21 

Of the Ph(Bnicians, --23 

The History of Greece, -----. 24 

Reflections on the first and rudest periods of the Grecian 

History, ----. 25 

Early period of the Grecian History.— Argonautie expedi- 
tion.— Wars of Thebes and (jf Troy, ... 26 
Eslablishment of I hp. Greek Colonies, - - - - 28 
The Republic of Sparta, * - - » - - 29 

The Repubhc of Athens, 32 

Of the State of the Persian Empire, and its History down 

to the war with Greece, S4 

The War between Greece and Persia, - - - - 35 

Age of Pericles, -------.39 

The Republic of Thebes, ...... 41 

Philip of Macedon, - - 42 

Alexander the Great, -.----. 43 

Successors of Alexander, - i- - - - - 46 

Fall and conquest of Greece, - - ... 47 

Political Reflections arising from the History of the States 
of Greece, ....... .48 

State of tiie Arts in Greece, 50 

Of the Greek Poets, 53 

Of the Greek Historians, 56 

Of the Greek Pbilosophers, 57 

The History of Rome, 61 

Reflections on the Government and State of Rome under 

the Kings, 65 

Rome under the Consuls, . . c . . . 67 

The Law of Yolero, .» 70 

The Deceinvirate, 71 

Increase of the Po])ular Power, ..... 72 

Conquest of Itsly by the Romans, • . - - 75 

History of Carthage, .-- - ...76 

History of Sicily, -..-.-.. 77 

The Punic Wars, 78 

The Gracchi, and the coi^ruption of the Commonwealth, 81 
Progress of the Civil wars. — Second Triumvirate, — and 

Fall of the Republic, 85 

Considerations on such particulars as mark the Geni«s and 

national Character of the Romans, ... - 90 

System of Roman Education, ----- /6. 

"Of the progiessof Literature among the Romans, - 9i 

State of Philosophy among the Romans, - - 9? 



CONTENTS. 



Sect. 38. Of the Public and Private Manners of the Romuns, 

Sect. 39. Of the Art of War among the Romans, ... 

Sect. 40. Reflections arising from a View of the Boman History 
during the Common wealth, - . - . . 

Sect. 41. Jlome under the Emperors, 

Sect. 42. The same subject continued, . . . . . 

Sect. 43. Age of the Antonmes, 8cc. --.-.. 

Sect. 44, State of the Roman Empire at the time of Consiantine. — 
His Successors, ...---. 

Sect, 45. Progress of the Christian Religion, from its institution to 
the extinction of Paganism in the Reign of Theoflosius, 

Sect. 46. Extinction of the Roman E«jpire in the West, 

Sect. 47. Of the Origin, Manners, and Character of the Gothic Na- 
tions before tlieir establishment in the Roman Empire, 

Sect. 48. Of the Manners, Laws, and Government of tlie Goihic 
Nations after their establishment in the Roman Empire, 

Sect. 49. Method of studying Ancient History, - - - - 
Comparative View of Ancient and Modern Geography, 



Page. 

<j7 
99 



101 
101- 
109 
lie 

ilG 

120 

1^1. 
12S 

ise 

l;38 



CONTENTS OF PART SECOND. 



MODERN HISTORY. 

Sect. 1. Of Arabia and the Empire of the Saracens, - - - }4i; 
Sect. 2. Monarchy of the Fi'anks, - - - - -*- 15 L 

Sect. 3. Reflections on tl»e State of France during the Merovingian 

race of its Kings, - - - - - - -153 

Sect. 4. Charlemagne. — The new Empire of the West. - - 150 
Sect. 5. Manners, Government, and Customs of the Age of Char- 

iemagne, - - -- - - - - - 158 

Sect. 6. Retrospective View of the Affairs of the Church preceding 

the Age of Charlemagne, - - - - - - 161 

Sect. 7. Empire of the West under the successors of Charlemagne, IC.'J 
Sect. 8. Empireof the East during the Eighth and Ninth Centuries, 1G5 
Sect. 9. State of the Church in the Eighth and Ninth Centuries, 1G6 
Sect. IC^ Of the Saracens in the Eighth and Ninth Centuries, - IGS 
Sect. 11, Empire of the West and Italy in the Tenth and Eleventh 

Centuries, 169 

Sect. 12. History of Britain from its earliest period down to the 

Noi'man Conquest, - - - - - - -171 

Sect. 13. Of the Governmeni, Laws, ana Manners of the Anglo- 
Saxons, - 177 

Se'T. 14. Slate of Europe during the Tenth, Eleventh, and Twelfth 

Centuries. ... . - - - ' - 179 

Sect. 15. History of England in the Eleventh, Twelfth, and part of 

the Thirteenth Centuries, 181 

State of Germany and Italy in the Thirteenth Century, 187 

The Crusades, or Holy Wars, 188 

Of Ch.valry and Ronnance, .--.-- 192 
State of Europe in the Thirteenth and Fourteenth Centuries, 94 
Revolution of Switaerland, ..---- l96 
Slate of Europe (continued) in the Thuteenth, Four- 
teenth, and ])art of the Fifteenth Centuries, * - 197 
History of England in the Thirteenth Century, - . 199 

History of Scotland from the Eleventh to the Fourteenth 
Century, --.-.---- iOl 

History of Englaiid in the Fourteenth Century, - - 202 



X CONTENTS. 

Page. 
iSECT. 25. England and France in the Fifteenth Century. — State of 

Manners, 205 

Sect. 26. Decline and Fall of the Greek Empire, - - . 207 

Sect. "-ll. tiovernment and Policy of the Turkish Empire, - 209 

Sect. 28, France and Italy in the end of the Fifteenth Century, 2i0 

Sect. 29. History of Spain in the Fourteenth and Fifteenth Centuries, 21 1 
Sect. 30. France, Spai'), and Italy in the end of the Fifteenth, and 

beginning of the Sixteenth Century, - - - 213 

Sect. 31. History of England from the middle of the Fifteenth to the 
beginning of the Sixteenth Century.— Civil Wars of 
York and Lancaster, - - .... 214 

Sect. 32. History of Scotland from the middle of the Fourteentli 

Century to the end of the Reign of James V. - - 217 
Sect. 33. Of the Ancient Constitution of the Scottish Government, 220 
Sect. 34. A View of the Progress of Literature and Science in Eu- 
rope, — from the Hevival of Letters down to the end of 

the Fifteenth Century, 222 

Sect. 35. View of the Progress of Commerce in Europe hefore the 

Portuguese Discoveries, 23§ 

Sect. 36. Discoveries of the Portuguese in the Fifteenth Century, 

and their effects on the Commerce of Europe, - 229 

Sect. 37. Germany and France in the Reigns of Charles V. and 

Francis!., - - - : - - - - 232 

Sect. 38. Observations on the Constitution of tli% German Empire, 235 
Sect. 39. Of the Reformation in Germany and Switzerland, and the 

Revolution in Denmaik and Sweden, - - - 237 

Sect. 40. Of the Reformation in England, under Henry VIII. and his 

successors, - - - - -- - - 240 

Sect. 41. Of the D.scovery and Conquest of America, - - 24.i 

Sect. kl. Possessions of the other European Nations in America, 245 
Sect. 43. Of the State of the Fine Arts in Europe, in the Age of 

Leo X. * - 24G 

Sect. 4i. Of the Ottoman power in the Sixteenth Century, - 250 

^ect. 45. State of Persia, and the other Asiatic Kingdoms, in the 

Sixteenth and Seventeenth Centuries, ... 251 

Sect. 46. History ol India, 253 

Sjsct. 47. Ancieilt State of India ; Manners, Laws, ArtSj and Sciences, 

and Religion of the Hindoos, . . - - . 255 

Sect. 48. Of China and Japan, 257 

Sect. 49* Of the A'ltiquity of the Empire of China — State of the 

Arts and Sciences, Manners, Government, Laws, - 258 
Sect. 50. M. Bailiy's Theory of the Origin of the Sciences among 

the Nations of Asia, 263 

.Sect. 51. Reign of Philip II. of Spain — Revolution of the Nether- 
lands, and Esiublisiiment of tiie Republic of HolUnd, 266 
Sbct. 52. Of the Constitution and Government of tlie United Pro- 
vinces, .....--.- 268 

Sect. 53. Reign of Philip II. continued, 269 

Sect. 54. State of France in the end of the Sixteentli Century. — Un- 
der Henry II. Francis II. Charles IX. Heniy III. and 

Henry IV. 270 

Sect. 55, History of England and of Scotland in the Reigns of Eliza- 
beth and Mary Queen of Scots, .... 273 
Sect. 56. History of Great Britain in the Reigns of James I. and 

Charles L 278 

Sect. 57. The Commonwealth of England, .... 283 

Sect. 58. The Reigns of Charles II. and James II, - - - 2S6 

Sect. 59. On the British Constitution, 289 

Sect. 60. Of the Public Revenue of Great Britain, - - - 294 
Sect. 61. History of France under Lewis XIII, - . - - 295 
Sect. 02. Spain under Philip III. and Pliilip IV.— Constitution of 

Portugal and of Spain, ...... 29* 



CONTENTS. Xi 

Page. 
Sect. 63. Affairs of Gerhiany, from tlie Abdication of Charles V. to 

the Peace of Westphalia, 298 

Sect. 64. France under Lewis XIV. 299 

Sect. 65. Of tiie Constitution of France under the Monarchy - 305 
Sect. 65 Of Peter the Great, Czar of Muscovy, and Charles XII. 

King of Swe<len, SO? 

Sect. 67. A View of the Progress ot Science and Literature in Eu- 
rope, — from the end of the Fifteenth to the end of the 
Seventeenth Century, 310 



Continuation of Tytler's Elemeiits of General Hisiory from the close of 
the seventeenth century to the gener:d peace in Europe^ ^. D. 1815. 

CHAPTER 1. 
History of Great Britain from the Revolution to the Battle of Waterloo. 

Sect \. Affairs of England, 3l6 

Sect. 2. Sketches of the late History of Scotland, - - • 323 

Sect. 3. Sketches of Ireland. S'ZS 

CHAPTER 11. 

History nj France from the Reign of Louis XIV. 528 

CHAPTER III. 

Historical Sketches of the Southern Kingdoms of Kurope. 

Sect. 1. Events of '■•pain uiider the Bourbon Princes, - - 331 

Sect 2. Review of Events in Portugal, - - - - - 33fi 

Sect. 3. Historical Remarks on Italy, 335 

CHAPTER IV. 
Histo)^ of Germany and the adjacent Kingdoms from the peace of 

Westphalia. 
Sect. t. Of the German Empire, _...-. 335 

Sect. 2. History of Prussia from the establishment of the Kingdom, 342 

Sect. 3. Historical Events in Holland, 344 

Sect. 4. Switzerland, 545 

CHAPTER V. 
Historical Sketches of the JVorihern Kingdoms of Europe. 

Sect. 1. View of Events in Denmark, 346 

Sect t*. Sketch of the M-idern History of Sweden, ... 347 
Sect, 3. History of Russia, from the time of Peter the Great, - 348 

Sect. 4. Events in Poland, - - 354 

CHAPTER VI. 
Sketches of the History of Turkey. 357 

CHAPTER VII. 
Observations on the History of Oriental Countries^ 362 

CHAPTER VIII. 
Sketches of the History of Amefica. 
Sect. 1. A brief View of Aboriginal America, and the parts claimed 

by Europeans, - 366 

Sect. 2. United States, S72, 

ATable of Chronology. 



INTliODUCTION. 



1- JL HE value of any science is to be estimated according 
to its tendency to promote improvement, either in private 
virtue, or in those quahties which render man extensively 
Useful in society. — Some objects of pursuit have a secondary 
utility ; in furnishing rational amusement, which, relieving 
the mind at intervals from the fatigue of serious occupation, 
invigorates and prepares it for fresh exertion. It is the per- 
fection of any science, to unite these advantages, to promote 
the advancement of public and private virtue, and to supply 
such a degree of amusement, as to supersede the necessity 
of recurring to frivolous pursuits for the sake of relaxation. 
Under this description^ fiJls the science of History. 

2. History, says Dionysius of Halicamassus, is "Philo^ 
sophy teaching by examples." The superior efficacy of 
example to precept is universally acknowledged. — All the 
laws of morahty and rules of conduct are verified by ex- 
perience, and are constantly submitted to its test and exami- 
nation. History, which adds to our own experience an im- 
mense treasure of the experience of others, furnishes 
innumerable proofs, by which we may verify all the pre- 
cepts of morality and of prudence. 

3. History, besides its general advantages, has a distinct 
species of utility to different men, according to their several 
ranks in society, and occupations in life. 

4. In this country, it is an indispensable duty of every man 
of liberal birth to be acquainted, in a certain degree, with 
the science of Politics ; and History is the school of PoH- 
tics. It opens to us the springs of human affairs ; the causes 
of the rise, grandeur, revolutions, and fall of empires. It 
points out the reciprocal influence of government and of 
national manners : it dissipates the prejudices, nourishes the 
love of our country, and directs to the best means of its 
improvement : it illustrates equally the blessings of political 
union, and the miseries of faction ; the danger, on the one 
hand, of uncontrolled liberty, and, on the other, the debas- 
ing influence of despotic power. 

6. It is necessary that the study of History should be 
prosecuted according to a regular plan ; for this science, 
more perhaps than any other, is liable to perversion from its 



INTRODUCTION. Xlll 

proper use. With some it is no better than an idle amuse- 
ment ; with others it is the food of vanity ; with a third class 
it fosters the prejudices of party, and leads to pohtical bi- 
gotry. It is dangerous for those who, even with the best in- 
tentions, seek for historical knowledge, to pursue the study 
without a guide ; for no science has been so little methodis- 
ed. The sources of prejudice are infinite ; and the mind of 
youth should not be left undirected amidst the erring, the 
partial, and contradictory representations of Historians. 
Besides the importance of being able to discriminate truth 
from falsehood, the attention ought to be directed only to 
useful truths. — Much danger arises from the perusal of me- 
moirs, collections of anecdotes, &c. ; for many of those 
works exhibit the most depraved pictures, weaken our 
confidence in virtue, and present the most unfavourable 
views of human nature. 

6. There are many difficulties which attend the attempt 
of forming a proper plan of study, and giving an instruc- 
tive view of General History. Utilitynis to be reconciled with 
amusement, prejudices are to be encountered, variety of 
taste to be^ansulted, political opinions balanced, judgment 
and decision exercised on topics keenly controverted. The 
proposer of such a plan ought, therefore, to be possessed 
equally of firmness of mind, and moderation of sentiment* 
In many cases he must abandon popularity for the calm ap- 
probation of his own conscience. Disregarding every par- 
tial and inferior consideration, he must direct his view 
solely to the proper end of all education, The forming of 
good men, and of good citizens. 

7. The object and general purpose of th'ie following 
Course, is to exhibit a progressive view of the state of 
mankind, from the earliest ages of which we have any 
authentic accounts, down to the close of the 17th centur}'^, 
— to delineate the origin of states and of empires, the great 
outlines of their history, the revolutions which they have un- 
dergone, the causes which have contributed to their rise and 
grandeur, and operated to their decline and extinction. 

For these purposes it is necessary to bestow particular at- 
tention on the manners of nations, their laws, the nature of 
their governments, their religion, their intellectual improve 
ments, and their progress in the arts and ieciences. 



PLAN OF THE COURSE. 



1 wo opposite methods have been followed in giving Aeademieal Lectures 
on ihe study of History : the one exhibiting a strict chronological arrange* 
inent of events, upon the plan of Turselline's Epitome ; the other a series 
of disquisitions on the various heads or titles of public law, and the doctrines 
of [joliiics; illustrated by exanriples drawn from ancient and modern his- 
tory.— fJoth these iiethods are liable to objection: The former furnishes 
only a dry chronicle of events, which nothing connects together but the or- 
der of time : The latter is insufficient for the most important purposes of 
history, the tracing events to their causes, the detection of the springs of 
human actions, the display of the progress of society, and of the rise and 
fall of states and empires : Fi.ially, by confining history to the exemphfica- 
tion of tlie doctrines of politics, we lose its efFieet as a school of morals. 

In the following Lectures, we hold a middle course between these ex- 
tremes, an<l emleavour, by remedying the imperfection of each, to unite, if 
possible, the advantages of b'>th. 

While so much regard is had to Chronology as is necessary for showing 
the progress of mankiad in society, and communicatmg just ideas of the . 
stale of the world in all the different ages to which authentic history ex- 
tends, we shall, in the delineation of the rise and fall of empires, and their 
revolutions, pay more attention to the connection of Subject tiian that of 
Time. 

I I this view, we must reject the common method of arranging General 
Historv according to epochs, or eVas. — 

When the world is viewed at any period, either or'ftnesent or of modern 
history, we p,enerally observe one nation or empire predoiTiLaapi. to whom 
all t!ie rest bear, as it »vere, an under part, and to whose history we fiijfl 
that the principal events in the annals of olher '.ations may be referred from 
sonie natural connection. This predominnnt empire or state it is proposed 
to exhiiilt to view as the principal object, whose history tiieretbre is to be 
more ful'-v (klineated, while the rest are only incidenlally touched when 
ilifey come to have a natural cnmv^ction with the princi{)vd, 
' The .Jewish hi4>tory, belonging to a different department of academical 
ediicati'ii, enters not into the plan of these Lectures ; though we often re- 
sort to tlie sacred .writings for detached facts illustrative of the manners of 
ancient natioi-is 

In the ancient world, among the profane nations, the Greeks are the ear- 
liest people who aake a distinguished figure, and whose history is at the 
same time anthe»itic. 

The Greeks owed their civilization to the Egyptians and Phosnicians. The 
Grecian history is . therefore properly introduced hy a short account of 
these nations, and of- the Vssyri^ns, their rivals, coiKpiered at one time by 
the Egyptians and conquerors after uards of them in their torn. 

Rise of tlie independent states of Greece, and singular constitution of the 
two great Rei>ublic8 of Sparta and Athens. 

The war of Greece with Persia induces a short accountof the preceding 
periods of the histv>ry of that nation the rise of the Persian monarchy, the 
F.ature of its government, manners, and relit^ion. 

The Grecian history is pursued through all the revolutions of the nation, 
tin Greece becomes a province of the Roman empire. 

Political reflections spplicable to the history of the states of Greece. — 
Progress of the Greeks in the \rts.-^Of the Greek Poets, Historians, Phi- 
losophers. 

Rome, after the conquest of Greece, becomes the leading object of atten^ 
tinn. 

Origin of the Rnmans.-T-Na*^ure of their government under the Kings. — 
Easy substitution of the consular for the regal dignity. — Subsequent ch:<nge« 
in the constitutio«. — Progress to a democracy. — Extensioti of t> 
ar.ms.— Uonqupst of Italy. — Wars with foreign nations. 



PLAN OF THE COURSE. ]u 

The Punic wars open a collateral view to the history of Carlhage and of 
Sicily. 

Success of the Roman arras in Asia, Macedonia, and Greece.— Opulence 
of the republic from her conquests, and corruption of her manners. — 1 he 
civil wars, aud ruin of the commoii wealth. 

Particulars which mark the genius and national spirit of the Romans : 
Education, — Laws, Literary character, — Art of war, — Public and private 
manners 

Rome under the Emperors: — Artful policy by which the first Emperors 
disguised theii- absolute authority ; — Decline of tiie ambitious character of 
the Romans; — Easy submission to the loss of civil liberty ;— The military 
spirit purposely abased by the Emperors, — The Empire divided becomes a 
languid body, without internal vigour ;• — I'he Gothic nations pour down 
from the North ; — Italy conquered successively i)y the Heruli, Ostrogoths, 
and Lombards ; — Extinction of the Western Empire. 

? The manners, geums, laws, and governmeut of the Gothic nations, form 
sitk important object of inquiry, from their influence on the manners and 
policy of the modern European kingdoms. 



lu the delineation of Modern Hisloiy, the leading <;bjects of attention are 
more various; the scene is oftener changed : nations, loo, wiiich tor a 
while occupy the chief attention, become for a time subordinate, and after- 
wards re-assume their rank as principal ; yet the saiv.e plan is pursued as 
in the department of Ancient Hisioi-y j the picture is occupied only by one 
great object at a time, to which all the rest hold an inferior rank, and are 
taken notice of only when connected with the princii)al. 

Upon the fall of the Western Empire, the Saracens are the first who 
distinguish themselves by the extension of their conquests, and the splen- 
dour of their dominion. 

While the Saracens extend their arms in the Enst and in Africa, a new 
empire of the V\ est is founded by Charlemagne. — The nse and progress of 
the monarchy of the Franks. — The origin of the Feudal system. — State of 
the European manners in the age of Charlemagne. — Government, Arts and 
Sciences, Literature. 

As collateral objects of attention, we survey the remains of the Roman 
Empire in the East : the conquests and settlements (f the Normans ; the 
foundation and progress of the temporal dominion of the church ol Rome ; 
conquest of Spain by tlie Saracens. 

The conquest of England by the Normans solicits our attention to the 
history of Britain. Retrospective view of tlie British history, from its ear- 
liest period to the end of the Anglo-Saxon government in England. — Ob- 
servations on the government, laws, and manners, ofthe Ans:;lo-Saxons. 

Collateral view of the state of the continental kingdoms of Europe durin"^ 
the ninth, tenth, and eleventh centuries. — France under the ( apetian race 
of monarchs, — Conquests of the Normans in Italy and Sicily — State of the 
Northern kingdoms of Europe. — l he Eastern empire.— Empire of Ger- 
jcbany. — Disputes of supremacy between the Popes and the Emperors. 

The history of Britain still the principal object of attention. — ^England 
under the kings of the Norman line, and the first princes of the Plantagenet 
branch. — The conquest of Ireland under Henry II. introduces an anticipat- 
ed progressive view of the political connection between England and Ire> 
land down to the present time. — As we proceed in the delineation of the 
British history, we note particularly those circumstances which mark the 
growth of the English constitution. 

At this period all the kingdoms of Europe join in the Crusades. — A brief 
account is given of those enterprises. — Moral and political effects of the 
Crusades on the nations of Europe.— Origin of Chivah-y, and rise of Roman- 
tic Fiction. 

Short connected sketch of the state of the European nations after the 
Crusades.— Rise of the house of Austria.— Decline of the Feudal govern- 



46 PLAN OP THE COURSE. 

ment iu France. — Establishiweiit of the Swiss republics.— Disorders in iht 
Popedom.— ^onut'l of Constance. 

The histoiy ol Britain resumed. — England under Henry III. and Edward 
I.— The conquest of Wales. — The history of Scotland at this period inti- 
mately connecte<l with that of England. — View of the Scottish history from 
Malcolm Canmore to Itubei t Biuoe. Slate of both kingdoms during the 
reigns of Edward II. and III. — The history of Fiaiice connected with that 
of Britain.' — Frai.ce itself won by ilenry V. 

Tlie stale of the East at this period affords the most interesting object of 
attention. — The progress of the Ottonian arms retarded for a while by the 
conquests of Tameriaiie and of Scanderberg. — The Turks prosecute their 
victories under Matioinet the Great to the total extinction of the Constan- 
tinopolitan empire. — The constitution and policy of the Turkish empire. 

France, in this age, emancipates herself from the Fcucial servitude ; and 
Spain, from the union of Arragon anil Castile, and toe fall of the kingdom 
of the Moors, becomes one monarchy under Ferdinand and Isabel a. 

The history of Britain is resume*!. — Sketch of the history of England 
down to the reign of Henry VHI. — Of Scotland, during the reigns of the 
five Jan. es's.— Delineation of the ancient constitution of the Scottish go- 
vernment. 

The end of the fifteenth century is a remarkable era in the history of 
Europe. Learning and the sciences underwent at that time a very rapid 
improvement ; and, after ages of darkness, shone out at once with surpris- 
ing lustre. 

A connected view is presented of the progress of literature in Europe, 
from its revival down to ihiapcrWl — -Iu the same age, the advancement 
of Navigation, anil the course to India by tiie Cape otGood Hope, explored 
by the Portuguese, affect the commerce of all the European kingdoms. 

The age of Charles V. unites in one connected view the afr,»,e of Ger- 
many, of Spain of France, of England, and of Italy. The discovery of the 
New World, the Reformation in Germany and in England, and the splen- 
dour of the Fine Arts under the pontificate of Leo X. render this period 
one of the most interesting in the annals of mankind. 

The pacification of Europe, by the treaty of Catteau Cambresis, allows 
us for a while to turn our attention to the state of Asia. A short sketch is 
given of the modern history of Persia, and^tthe state of the other kingrloms 
of Asia, in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries; the history of India ; 
the uianners. laws, arts and sciences, and religion of the Hicaloos ; the his- 
tory of China and Japan ; the antiquity of the Chinese empire, its manners, 
laws government, and attainments in the arts and sciences. 

Returning to Europe, the attention is directed to the state of the conti- 
nental kingdoms iii The age of Philip II. Spain, the Netherlands, France, 
and England, present a various and animated picture. 

E!if;land under Elizabeth. — :The progress of the Reformation in Scot- 
land. — The distracted reign of Mary Queen of Scots. — The history of Bri- 
tainp'irsued without interruption down to the Revolution, and here closed 
by a sketch of the progress of the >^nglish constitution, and an examination 
of its nature at this period, when it became fixe<l and determined. 

The history of the Southern continental kingdoms is brought iJown to the 
end of the reign of Louis XIV. ; ot the Northern, to the conclusion of the 
reiirns of Charles XII. of Sweden, and of Peter the Great Czar of Muscovy, 
We finish this^ie • of Universal History, by a survey of the state of the 
Arts and Sciences, and of the progress of Literature in Europe, during the 
sJxteeiith and seventeenth centuries 



ANCIENT HISTORY. 



PART FIRST. 



I. 



It is a difficult task to delineate the state of mankind in the 
earliest ages of the world. We want information sufficient 
to give us positive ideas on the subject ; but as man advan- 
ces in civilization, and in proportion as history becomes 
useful and important, its certainty increases, and its mate- 
rials are more abundant. 

Various notions have been formed with respect to the 
population of the antediluvian world and its ph} sical ap- 
pearance ; but as these are rather matters of theory than 
of fact, they scarcely fall within the province of history ; 
and they are of the less consequence, that we are certain 
the state of those antediluvian ages could have had no ma- 
terial influence on the times which succeeded them. 

The books of Moses afford the earliest authentic history 
of the ages immediately following the deluge. 

About 150 years after that event, Nimrod (the Belus of 
profane historians) built Babylon, and Assur Nineveh, which 
became the capital of the Assyrian empire. 

Ninus the son of Belus, and his queen Semiramis, are 
said to have raised the empire of Assyria to a higher degree 
«f splendour. n 

From the death of Ninias the son of Ninus, down to the 
revolt of the Medes under Sardanapalus, a period of 800 
years, there is a chasm in the history of Assyria and Baby- 
lon. This is to be supplied only from conjecture. 

The earliest periods of the Egyptian history are equally 
uncertain with those of the Assyrian. — Menes is supposed 
the first king of Egypt ; probably the Misraim of the Holy 
Scriptures, the grandson of Noah, or as others conjecture^ 
the Oziris of Egypt, the inventor of arts, and the civilizer 
of a great part of the Eastern world. 

3 



18 ANCIENT HISTORY. PART i. 

After Menes or Oziris, Egypt appears to have been divid- 
ed into four dynasties, Thebes, Thin, Memphis, and Ta- 
nis, and the people to have attained a considerable degree 
of civilization : But a period of barbarism succeeded un- 
der the Shepherd-kings, subsisting for the space of some 
centuries, down to the age of Sesostris (1650 B. C), who 
united the separate principalities into one kiniidom, re2:ulat- 
ed its policy with admirable skill, and distinguished himself 
equally by his foreign conquests, and by his domestic admin- 
iiitration. 



II. 



•CONSIDERATIONS ON THE NATURE OF THE FIRST GOVERN- 
MENTS, AND ON THE LAWS, CUSTOMS, ARTS, AND SCIENCES 
OF THE EARLY AGES. 

§ 1. The earliest Government is the Patriarchal, which 
subsists in the rudest periods of. society. 

The patriarchal government leads b}-^ an easy progress to 
the monarchical. 

The first monarchies must have been very weak, and 
their territory extremely limited. The idea of security 
precedes that of conquest. In forming our notions of the 
extent of the first monarchies, we are deceived by the 
w^ord King, which, according to modern ideas, is connected 
with an extent of territory, and a proportional power. — 
The kings in Scripture are no more than the chiefs of tribes. 
There were five kings in the vale of Sodom. Joshua de- 
feated in his wars thirty-one kings, and Adonizedec three- 
score and ten. 

The regal office was in all probability at first elective. 
The transmission of* the sceptre to the heir of the last mon- 
arch, arises in time, from the experience of the mischiefs 
attending frequent elections, and the disorders occasioned 
by ambitious men aspiring at that dignity. 

The first ideas of conquest must have proceeded from a 
people in the state of shepherds, who, necessarily changing 
their pastures, would probably make incursions on the ap- 
propriated territory of their neighbours. Such were the 
Arabian or Phoenician invaders, who, under the name of 
Shepherd-kings, conquered Egypt. But kingdoms so found- 
ed could have little duration. Laws, and good policy, es- 
sential to the stability of kingdoms, are the fruit of intellec- 
tual refinement, and arise only in a state of society con- 
siderably advanced in civilization, 



.vECT. 2. ANCIENT HISTORY. 19 

The progress from barbarism to civilization is slow ; 
because every step in the progress is the result of necessity, 
after the experience of an error, or the strong feeling of 
a want. 

§ 2. Origin of Lazvs, — Certain political writers have 
supposed, that in the infancy of society penal laws must 
have been extremely mild. We presume the contrary to 
have been rather the case ; as the more barbarous the 
people, the stronger must be the bonds to restrain them : 
and history confirms the supposition, in the ancient laws of 
the Jews, Egyptians, Greeks, Romans, and Gauls. 

Among the earliest laws of all states are those regarding 
marriage ; for the institution of marriage is coeval with the 
formation of society. The iirst sovereigns of all states arc 
said to have instituted marriage ; and the earliest laws pro- 
vided encouragements to matrimony. 

Among the ancient nations, the husband purchased his 
w^ife, by money, or personal services. Among the Assyri- 
aigtthe marriageable women were put up to auction ; and the 
price obtained for the more beautiful was assigned as a dow- 
ry to the more homely. 

The Laws of Succession are next in order to those of 
marriage. The father had the absolute povv^er in the divi- 
sion of his estate. But primogeniture was understood to 
confer certain rights. 

Laws arise necessarily and imperceptibly from the condi- 
tion of society ; and each particular law m:\y be traced from 
the state of manners, or the political emergency which gave 
it birth. Hence we perceive theintimate connection be- 
tween history and jurisprudence, tind the light which they 
must necessarily throw upon eadi other. The laws of a 
country are best interpreted from hs history ; and its uncer- 
tain history is best elucidated by ite ancient laws. 

§ 3. Earliest Methods of authenticating Contracts. — Be- 
fore the invention of writing, contracts, testaments, sales-- 
marriages, and the like, v/ere transacted in public. — The 
Jewish and the Grecian histories furnish many examples. 
Some barbarous nations authenticate their bargains by ex 
changing symbols or tallies. — The Peruvians accomplished 
most of the purposes of writing by knotted cords of vari- 
ous colours termed, Qiiipos. — The Mexicans communicated 
intelligence to a distance by painting. — Other nations used 
an abridged mode of painting, or hierog)y])hics.— Before the 
use of writing, the Egyptians used hieroglyphics for trans- 
mitting and recording knowledge : After writing, they em- 
ployed it for veiling or concealing it from the vulgar. 



20 ANCIENT HIBTOEY. PART I. 

§ 4. Methods for recording Historical Facts, and publish- 
ing Laves. — Poetry and song were the first vehicles of 
history, and the earliest mode of promulgating laws. The 
songs of the bards record a great deal of ancient history : 
the laws of many of the ancient nations were composed 
in verse. 

Stones rude and sculptured, tumnli and mounds of earth, 
are the monuments of history among a barbarous people ; 
imd columns, triumphal arches, coins, and medals, among a 
more refined. — These likewise illustrate the progress of 
manners and of the arts. 

§ 5. Religious Institidions. — Among the earliest institu- 
lions of all nations, are those which regard religious worship. 
The seutimentof rehgion is deeply rooted in the human mind. 
An uninstructed savage will infer the existence ol a God, and* 
his attributes, from the general order and mechanism of na- 
ture ; and even its temporary irregularities lead to religious 
reneration of the unknown Power which conducts it. 

Before conceiviiig the idea of a Being utterly imperc%- 
lible to his senses, a savage would naturally seek that Being 
in the most striking objects of sense to which he o^ed tiis 
jnost apparent benefits. The sun, extending his beneficial 
influence over all nature, was among the earliest objects of 
worship. The fire presented a symbol of the sun. The 
other celestial bodies naturally attracted their share of ven- 
eration. 

The symbolical mode of writing led to many peculiarities 
of the idolatrous worship of the ancient nations. Animals, 
symbolical of the attributes of Deity, became gods them- 
selves. The same god,* represented by different animals. 
w;is supposed to h;ive changed himself into different forms. — 
The gratitude and veneration foi- men whose lives had been 
eminently useful, joined to the belief of the souTs immorta- 
lity, led to the apotheosis of heroes. — Many excellent re- 
flections on idolatry and polytheism are found in the book 
called The Wisdom of Sol-mon. 

The priesthood was anciently exercised by the chief or 
monarch ; but as an em.pire became extensive, the monarch 
exercised this office by his delegates ; and hence an addi- 
tional source of veneration for the priesthood. The priests 
were the framers and the administrators of the laws. 

§ 6. Arts and Sciences of the Ancient Nations. — The 
useful arts are the offspring of necessity ; the sciences are 
the fruit of ease and leisure. The construction of huts, 
of weapons of war. and of hunting, are the earliest arts.. 



§:ECT. 3. ANCIENT HISTORY. 21 

Agriculture is not practised till the tribe becomes stationary, 
and property is detined and secured. 

The Sciences arise in a cultivated society, where indivi- 
duals enjoy that leisure which invites to study and specula- 
tion. The priests maintained in that condition by the 
monarch, were the earliest cultivators of science. The 
Egyptian science was conlined to the priests. Astronomy, 
which is among the earliest of the sciences, OAved its origin 
probably to superstition. Medicine was among the early 
sciences. All rude nations have a pharmacy of their own, 
equal in general to their vyants. Luxury, creating new and 
more complex diseases, requires a profownder knowledi^-e 
of medicine, and of the animal economy. 



^ 



III. 

n't- 

OF THE EGYPTIANS. 



A GREAT portion of the knowledge and attainments of' 
the ancient nations, and by consequence of those of the mo- 
derns, is to be traced to Egypt. The Egj/ptians instructed 
the Greeks ; they performed the same office to the Ro- 
mans ; and the two latter ha^ e transmitted much of that 
knowledge to the world of which we are in possession at 
this day.* 

2. The antiquity of this empire, though we give no credit 
to the chronicles of Manetho, must be allowed to be very 
great. — The Mosaic writings represent Egypt, about 430 
years after the flood, as a flourishing and well regulated 
kingdom. — The nature of the country itself affords a pre- 
sumption of the great antiquity of the empire, and its early 
civilization. — From the fertilizing effects of the w aters of the 
Nile^it is probable that agriculture would be more early 
practised there, than in regions less favoured by nature. — 
The periodical inundations of the Nile are owing to the va- 
pours of thelflediterranean condensed on the mountains of 
Ethiopia. 

^ ^ 3. The government ofEgypt was a hereditarymonarchy. — 
The powers of the Monarch were limited by constitutionai 
laws ; yet in many respects his authority was extremely des- 
potical.— the functions of the Sovereign were partly civil and 
partly reh-ious.— The King had the chief regulation of all 
that regarded, the worship of the gods ; and the priests, con- 

For the sui)pos€(J origin of Eg7j>tian science, see V^i 11. Sevl, 5a 

3* 



2-2 ANCIENT mSTOKt. FART I. 

sidered as his deputies, filled all the officfes of state. The} 
were bpth the legislators and the civil judges ; they impos> 
ed and levied the taxes, and regulated weights and measures. 
— The great national tribunal was composed of thirty 
judges, chosen from the three principal departments of the 
empire. — The administration of justice was defrayed by the 
Sovereign, and, as parties were their own advocates, was no 
burden upon the people. — The penal laws of Egypt were 
uncommonly severe. — Female chastity was most rigidly 
protected. — Funeral rites were not confeiTed but after a 
scrutiny into the life of the deceased, and by a judicial de- 
cree approving of his character. The characters even of 
the Sovereigns were subjected to this enquiry. 

There was an extraordinary regulation in Egypt regard- 
ing the borrowing of mone}'. The borrower gave in pledge 
the body of his father, emd was deprived of funeral rites if 
he failed to redeem it. 

Population was encouraged by law ; and every man was 
bound to maintain and educate the children born to him of 
his slaves. 

4 The manners of the Egyptians were very early formed. 
They had a singular attachment to ancient usages ; a dislike 
to innovation ; a jealousy and abhorrence of strimgers. 

5. They preceded most of the ancient nations in the 
knowledge of the useful arts, and in the cultivation of the 
sciences. — Architecture was early brought to great perfec- 
tion, — Their buildings, the pyramids, obelisks, &c. have, 
from the mildness of the climate, suffered little injury from 
time. — Pliny describes the contrivance for transporting the 
obelisks. — The whole country abounds with the remains of 
ancient magnificence. — Thebes, in Upper Egypt, was one of 
the most splendid cities in the universe. 

The pyramids are supposed to have been erected about 
900 years B. C. — They were probably the sepulchral^hon- 
uments of the Sovereigns. The Egyptians believed that 
death did not separate the soul from the body ; and hence 
their extreme care to preserve the body efitire, by em- 
balming, concealing it in caves and catacombs, and guarc^ng 
it by such stupendous structures. — Mr. Bruce supposes the 
pyramids to be rocks hewn into a pyramidal form, and en- 
crusted, where necessary, with mason- work. " • 

The remains of art in Egypt, though venerable /or theip ' 
great antiquity, are extremely deficient in beauty and ele- 
gance. — The Egyptians were ignorant of the construction of 
an arch. — The remains of painting and sculpture evince but 
a slender proficiency in those arts. 



SLCT. 4. ANCIENT HISTORY- 2<' 

6. The Egyptians possessed considerable knowledge of 
geometry, mechanics, and astronomy. They had divided 
the zodiac into twelve signs ; they calculated eclipses ; and 
seem to have had an idea of the motion of the earth. 

7. The morality taught by the priests was pure and refin- 
ed ; but ithadhttle influence on the manners of the people. 

8. So likewise the theology and secret doctrines of the 
priests were rational and sublime ; but the worship of the 
people was debased by the most absurd and contemptible 
superstition. 

9. Notwithstanding the early civilization and the great 
attainments of this people, their national character Was ex- 
tremely low and despicable among the contemporary na- 
tions of antiquity. The reason of this is, they were a peo 
pie who chose to sequestrate themselves from the rest oi 
mankind ; they were not known to other nations by their 
conquests ; they had little connection with them by com- 
merce ; and they had an antipathy to the persons and man- 
ners of strangers. 

10. There were likewise many circumstances of their 
own manners which tended to degrade them in the opinion 
of other nations. — All professions were hereditary in Egypt, 
and the rank of each was scrupulously settled : The ob- 
jects of the religious worship were different in different 
parts of the kingdom ; a fertile source of division and con- 
troversy : Their particular superstitions were of the most 
absurd and debasing nature ; and the manners of the peo- 
ple were extremely loose and profligate. 



IV. 

OF THE PHOENICIANS. 

1. The Phoenicians were among the most early civi- 
lized nations of the East. We are indebted to them for the 
invention of writing, and for the rirst attempts at conamer- 
cial navigation. — The fragirients of Sanchoniatho are the 
most'ancient monuments of writing after tflfe books of Mo- 
ses. Sanchoniatho was contemporary with Joshua, about 
1440 B. C. and 500 before the cities of Attica were united 
by Theseus. 

2. Ti*e Phoenicians (the Canaanites of Scripture) were 
a commercial people in the daysof Abraham. — In the time 
of the Hebrew Judges, they had begun to colonize. - Their 
first settlements were Cyprus and Rhodes : thence they 
passed into Greece, Sicilv, Sardinia, and Spain, and foimed^ 



24 ANCIENT HISTORY. PART r. 

establishments likewise on the western coast of Africa. — > 
The Sicionians carried on an extensive commerce at the 
time of the Trojan war. 



V. 

THE HISTORY OF GREECE. 

1. Greece being indebted for the first rudiments of civi- 
i^ization to the Egyptians and Phoenicians, its history is 
properly introduced by an account of those more ancient 
nations. 

2. The early antiquities of this country are disguised by 
fable ; but from the time when it becomes important, it has 
been treated of by eminent writers. 

3. The ancient inhabitants of Greece, the Pelasgi, Hian- 
tes, Leleges, were extremely barbarous ; but a dawning of 
civilization arose under the Titans, a Phoenician or Egyj. 
tian colony, who settled in the country about the time < 
Mose&.— The- Titattjs. gave the Greeks the first ideas of re- 
ligion,'^and introduced the worship of their own gods, Sa- 
turn, Jupiter, Ceres, &c. Succeeding ages confounded 
those Titans themselves with the gods, and hence sprung 
numberless fables. 

4. Inachus, the last of the Titans, founded the kingdom 
of Argos, 1856 B. C.-— And Egialtes, one of his sons, the 
kingdom of Sicyon. 

5. In the following century happened the deluge of Ox- 
yges, 1796 B. C. — Then followed a period of barbarism 
for above 200 years. 

6. "Cecrops, the leader of another colony from Egypt, 
landed in Attica, 1582 B. C., and, connecting himself wit^ 
the last king, succeeded, on his death, to the sovereign^ 
He built twelve cities, and was eminent both as a lawgiver 
and politician. 

7. The Grecian History derives some authenticity at 
this period from the Chronicle of Paros, preserved among 
the Arundelian Garbles at Oxford. — The authenticil; of this 
chronicle has been questioned of late, and many aruuments 
adduced, presumptive of its being a forgery ; but on a re- 
view of the whole controversy, we judge the arguments for 
its authenticity to preponderate. It fixes the dites of the 
most remarkable events in the history of Greece, from thQ 
time of Cecrops down to the age of Alexander the Great. 

8. Cranaus succeeded Cecrops, in whose time h^sppened 
two remarkable events recorded in the Chronicle of Paros 5 



SECT. 6-. ^XCIENT HISTORY. 25 

the judgment of the Areopagus between Mars and Nep- 
tune, two princes of Thessaly ; and the Dehige of Deuca- 
lion. — The court of Areopagus, at Athens, was instituted 
by Cecrops. The number of its judges varied at different 
periods from nine to fifty-one. — The Deluge of Deucalion, 
magnified and disguised by the poets, was probably only a 
partial inundation. 

9. Amphictyon, the contemporary of Cranaus, if the 
founder of the Amphictyonic Council, must have possessed 
extensive vieAvs of policy. — This council, from a league of 
twelve cities, became a representative assembly of the state 
of Greece, and had the most admirable political effects in 
uniting the nation, and giving it a common interest. 

10. Cadmus, about 1519 B. C. introduced alphabetic wri- 
ting into Greece from Phoenicia. — The alphabet then had 
only sixteen letters ; and the mode of writing (termed 
Boustrophedon) was alternately from left to right, and right 
to left. — From this period the Greeks made rapid advances 
in civilization. 



VI. 

REFLECTIONS ON THE FIRST AND RUDEST PERIODS OF THK 
GRECIAN HISTORY. 

1. The country of Greece presents- a large, irregulat- 
peninsula, intersected by man)'^ chains of mountains, sepa- 
rating its different districts, and opposing natural impediments 
to general intercourse, and therefore to rapid civilization. — 
The extreme barbarism of the Pelasgi, who are said to have 
been cannibals, and ignorant of the use of fire, 'has its pa- 
rallel in modern barbarous nations. — There were many 
circumstances that retarded the progress of the Greeks to re- 
finement. The introduction of a national religion was best 
fitted to remove these obstacles. Receiving this new system 
of Theology from strangers, and entertaining at first very 
confused ideas of it, they would naturally blend its doctrines 
and worship with the notions of religion which they for- 
merly possessed ; and hence we observe only partial coin- 
cidences of the Grecian with the Egyptian and Phoenician 
mythologies. — It has been a vain and preposterous laboui 
of modern mythological writers, to attempt to trace all the 
fables of anficiuity, and the various systems of Pagan Theolo- 
gy, up to one common source. — The absurdity of this is best 
shown by comparing the different and most contradictory 
solutions of the same fable given by different mythologist^ i 



26 ANCIENT HiSTORy. PART I.. 

as, for example, by Lord Bacon and the Abb^ Banier. 
Some authors, with much indiscretion, have attempted to 
deduce all the Pagan Mythologies from the Holy Scriptures. 
— Such researches are not only unprofitable, but positively 
mischievous. 

2. Superstition, in the early periods, was a predominant 
characteristic of the Greeks. — To this age, and to this cha- 
racter of people, we refer the origin of the Grecian Oracles, 
and the institution of the Public Games in honour of the 
Gods. 

The desire of penetrating into futurit}'', and the super- 
stition common to rude nations, gave rise to the Oracles of 
Delphi, Dodona, &c. 

The resort of strangers to these Oracles on particular oc- 
casions, led to the celebration of a festival, and to public 
Games. 

The four solemn Games of the Greeks, particularly 
termed hpot, were the Olympic, the Pythian, the Nemean, 
and the Isthmain. They consisted principally in contests of 
skill in all the athletic exercises, and the prizes were chiefly 
honorary marks of distinction. — Archbishop Potter in his 
Archifologla Grceca, fully details their particular nature, 
—These games had excellent political effects, in promoting 
national union, in diffusing the love of glory, and training 
the youth to martial exercises. They cherished at once a 
heroical and a superstitious spirit, which led to the formation 
of extraordinary and hazardous enterprises, 



VII. 



EA.E,LY PERIOD OF THE GRECIAN HISTORY. THE ARGONA^- 

TIC EXPEDITION. WARS OF THEBES AND OF TROY. 

1. The history of Greece, for a period of SOOyears preced- 
ing the Trojan war, is intermixed with fables ; but contains, 
at the same time, many facts entitled to credit, as authentic. 
Erectheus or Ericthonius, either a Greek who had visited 
Egypt, or the leader of a new Egyptian colony, cultivated the 
plains of Eleusis, and instituted the Eleusinian mysteries, in 
imitation of the Egyptian games of Isis. These mysteries 
v,-ere of a religious and moral nature, conveying the doc- 
trines of the unity of God, the immortality o^the soul, and 
a future state of reward and punishment. Cicero speaks 
of them with high encomium. — But the <;eremonie» con- 
nected with them were childish and ridiculous. 



Sect. T. ancient histor,y. 2* 

2. Theseus laid the foundation of the grandeur of Attica, 
by uniting its twelve cities, and giving them a common con- 
stitution, 1257 B. C. 

3. The first great enterprise of the Greeks v^^as the 
Argonautic expedition, 1263 B. C. (Usher), and 937 B. C. 
(Sir I. Newton.) This is supposed to have been both a 
military and a mercantile adventure, and was singularly bold 
for the times in which it was undertaken. The object wa^ 
to open the commerce of the Euxine sea, and to secure 
some establishments on its coasts. The astronomer Chiron 
directed the plan of the voyage, and formed, for the u:.'e of 
the mariners, a scheme of the constellations, fixing with 
accuracy the solstitial and equinoctial points. Sir Isaac 
Newton has founded his emendation of the ancient Chro- 
nology, on a calculation of the regular procession of the 
equinoxes from this period to the present, as well as on an 
estimate of the medium length of human generations. 

4. The state of the military art at this time in Greece 
may be estimated from an account of the sieges of Thebes, 
and of Tro3^ 

In these enterprises the arts of attack and defence were 
very rude and imperfect. The siege was entirely of the 
nature of blockade, and therefore necessarily of long dura- 
tion. — A dispute for the divided sovereignty of Thebes be- 
tween the brothers Eteocles and Polynices, gave rise to the 
war, which was terminated by single combat, in which 
both were killed. 

5. The sons of the commanders slain in this war renew- 
ed the quarrel of their fathers, and occasioned the war of the 
Eptgo7ioi, a subject on which Homer is said to have written 
a poem, now lost, equal to the Iliad and Odyssey. 

6. The detail of the war of Troy rests chiefly on the au- 
thority of Homer, and ought not, in spite of modern scep- 
ticism, to be refused, in its principal facts, the credit of a 
true history. — After a blockade of ten years, Troy was ta- 
ken, either by storm or surprise, 1184 B. C. and, being set 
on fire in the night, was burnt to the ground : not a vestige 
of its ruins existing at the present day. The empire fell 
from that moment. The Greeks settled a colony near the 
spot ; and the rest of the kingdom was ocupied by the Ly- 
dians. / 

7. Military expeditions at this time were carried on 6nly 
in the spring and summer. — In a tedious siege, the winter 
was a season of armistice. — The science of military tactice 
was then utterly unknown, every battle being a multitude of 
single combats, — The soldier had no pay but his share of the 



28 ANCIENT HISfORV, 'PART i. 

booty, divided by the chiefs.—- The weapons of war were 
the sword, the bow, the javelin, the club, the hatchet, and 
Ihe sling. A helmet of brass, an enormous shield, a cuirass^ 
Stnd buskins were the weapons of defence. 



VIII. 

ESTABLISHMENT OF THE GREEK COLONIES, 

1. About eighty years after the taking of Troy began tlK 
Wai*of the Heraclidae. Hercules, the son of Amphitryon, 
sovereign of Mycenae, was banished from his country with 
all his family, while the crown was possessed by an usurper. 
His descendants, after the period of a century, returned to 
Peloponnesus, and subduing all their enemies, took posses- " 
sion of the states of Mycenae, Argos, and Lacedaemon. 

2. A long period of civil war and bloodshed succeeded, 
and Greece, divided among a number of petty tyrants, suf- 
fered equally the miseries of oppression and anarchy. 

Codrus, king of Athens, showed a singular example of 
patriotism, in devoting himself to death for his country ; yet 
the Athenians, weary of monarchy, determined to make the 
experiment of a popular constitution. Medon, the son of 
Codrus, was elected chief magistrate, with the title of Ar- 
<ihon. This is the commencement of the Athenian republic, 
about 1068 B. C. 

3. It was at this time that the Greeks began to colonize. 
The oppression which they sufl'ered at home forced many 
of them to abandon their country, and seek refuge in other 
lands. — A large body of ^Eolians from Peloponnesus found- 
ed twelve cities in the Lesser Asia, of wliich Smyrna 
was the most considerable. A troop of Ionian exiles built 
Ephesus, Colophon, Clazomene, and other towns ; giving 
to their new settlements the name of their native country 
Ionia. The Dorians sent off calonies to Italy and Sicily, 
founding, in the former, Tarentum and Locri, and in the 
latter, Syracuse and Agrigentum. The mother-country 
considered its colonies as emancipated children. — These 
speedily attained to eminence and splendour, rivalling and 
,surpassing their parent states : And tke example of their 
prosperity, which was attributed to the freedom oi their 
governments, incited the states of Greece, opprojssed by a 
number of petty despots, to put an end to the regal govern- 
ment, and try the experiment of a popular constitution 
Athens and Thebes gave the first examples, which wer 
goon followed b^ all the rest. 



>ECT. 9. ANCIENT HISTORY. 29 

7. These infant repubUcs demanded new laws ; and it 
was necessary that some enUghtened citizens should arise, 
who had discernment to perceive what system of legisla- 
tion was most adapted to the character of his native state ; 
who had abilities to compile such a system, and sufficient 
authority with his countrymen to recommend and enforce 
it. Such men were the Spartan Lycurgus and the Athe- 
nian Solon. 



IX. 

THE REPUBLIC OF SPARTA. # 

1. The origin of this political system lins given rise to 
much ingenious disquisition among the moderns, and affords 
a remarkable instance of the passion for systematizing. It 
is a prevailing propensity with modern pliilosophers to re- 
duce every thing to general principles. Man, say they, is 
always the same animal, and, when placed in similar situa- 
tions, will alwciys exhibit a similar appearance. His man- 
ners, his improvements, the government and laws under 
which he lives, arise necessarily from the situation in 
which we find him ; and all is the result of a few general 
laws of nature which operate universally on the human 
species. But in the ardour of this passion for generalizing^ 
these philosophers often forget, that it is the knowledge of 
facts which can alone lead to the discovery of general 
laws : A knowledge not limited to the history of a single 
age or nation, but extended to that of the whole species in 
every age and climate. Antecedently to such knowledge, 
all historical system is mere romance. 

2. Of this nature is a late theory of the constitution of 
Sparta, first started by Mr. Brown in his Essay on Civil 
Liberty ; and from him adopted by later writers. It thus 
accounts for the origin of the Spartan constitution. * " The 
army of the Heraclidae, when they came to recover the 
dominion of their ancestors, was composed of Dorian* 
from Thessaly, the most barbarous of nil th^ Greek tribes. 
The Achaeans, the ancient inhabitants of Laconia, were 
compelled to seek new habitations, while the barbarians of 
Thessaly took possession of their country. Of all the 
nations which are the subject of historical record, this 
people bore the nearest resemblance to the rude Ameri- 



Logan'a Philosophy of History, &c. 
4 



30 ANCIENT HISTORY, PART I. 

cans. An American tribe where a chief presides, where 
the council of the aged deUberate, and the assembly of 
the people gives their voice, is on the eve of such a politi- 
cal establishment as the Spartan constitution."" The Do- 
rians or Thessalians settled in Lacedaemon, manifested, it 
is said, the same manners with all other nations in a barba- 
rous state. Lycurgus did no more than arrest them in 
that state, by forming their usages into laws. He checked 
them at once in the first stage of their improvement. " He 
put forth a bold hand to that spring which is in society, 
and stopt its motion.'"' 

3. This theory, however ingenious, is confuted by facts. 
All ancient authors agree, that Lycurgus operated a total 
change on the Spartan manners, and on the constitution of 
kis country ; while the moderns have discovered that he 
made no cha\ige on either. The most striking features of 
the manners and constitution of Sparta have not the small- 
est resemblance to those of any rude nations with which 
we are acqutunted. The communion of slaves and many 
other species of property, the right of the state in the 
children of all the citizens, their common education, the 
public tables, the equal division of lands, the oath of go- 
vernment between the kings and people, have no parallel 
in the history of any barbarous nations. 

4. The real history of Sparta and its constitution is there- 
fore not to be found in modern theory, but in the writings 
of the Greek historians, and these are our sole authorities 
worthy of credit. 

After the return of the Heraclidae, Sparta was divided 
between the two sons of Aristodemus, Eurysthenes, and 
Procles, who jointly reigned ; and this double monarchy, 
transmitted to the descendants of each, continued in the 
separate branches for near 900 years. A radical principal 
of disunion, and consequent anarchy, made the want of con- 
stitutional laws be severely felt. Lycurgus, brother of 
Polydecte^, one of the kings of Sparta, a man distinguished 
alike by his abilities and virtues, was invested, by the con- 
curring voice of the sovereigns and people, with the im- 
portant duty of reforming and new-modelling the constitu- 
tion of his country, 884 B. C. 

5. Lycurgus instituted a senate, elective, of twenty-eight 
members ; whose office was to preserve a just balance be- 
tween the power of the kings and that of the people. 
Nothing could come before the assembly of the people 
which had not received the previous consent of the senate ; 
and on the other hand, no judgment of the senate was effec- 



SECT. 10. ANCIENT HISTORY. ol 

tual without the sanction of the people. The kings presid- 
ed in the senate : they were the generals of the republic ; 
but they could plan no enterprise without the consent of a 
council of the citizens. 

6. Lycurgus bent his attention most particularly to the 
regulation of manners ; and one great principle pervaded 
his whole system ; Luxury is the bane of society. 

He divided the territory of the Republic into 39,000 
equal portions, among the whole of its free citizens. 

He substituted iron money for gold and silver, prohibited 
the practice of commerce, abolished all useless arts, and 
allowed even those necessary to Viii to be practised only by 
the slaves. 

The whole citizens made their principal repast at the 
public tables. The meals where coarse and parsimonious ; 
the conversation was fitted to improve the youth in virtue, 
and cultivate the patriotic spirit. 

The Spartan education rejected all embellishments of 
the understanding. It nourished only the severer virtues. 
It taught the duties of religion, obedience to the laws, res- 
pect for parents, reverence for old age, inflexible honour, 
undaunted courage, contempt of danger and of death :— 
Above all the love of glory and of their country. 

7. But the general excellence of the institutions of Ly- 
curgus was impaired by many blemishes. The manners of 
the Lacedaemonian women were shamefully loose. They 
frequented the baths, and fought naked in the Palaestra pro^ 
miscuously with the men. Theft was a part of Spartan 
education. The youth were taught to subdue the feelings 
of humanity ; the slaves were treated with the most barba- 
rous rigour, and often massacred for sport. The institutions 
of I^ycurgus had no other end than to form a nation of 
soldiers. 

8. A faulty part of the constitution of Sparta was the 
office of the Ephori ; magistrates elected by the people, 
whose power, though in some respects subordinate, was in 
others paramount to that of the kings and senate. 



X. 



THE REPUBLIC OF ATHENS. 



1. On the abolition of the regal office at Athens, th^ 
change of the constitution was more nominal than real. 
The archonship was, during three centuries, a perpetual- 



32 ANCIENT HISTORY. PART I. 

and hereditary magistnic}^ In 754 B. C. this office be- 
came decennial. In 648 the archons were annually elected, 
and were nin« in number, with equal authority. Under all 
these changes, the state was convulsed, and the condition of 
the people miserable. 

2. Draco, elevated to the archonship 624 B, C, pro- 
jected a reform in the constitution of his country, and 
thought to repress disorders by the extreme severity of 
penal laws. But his talents were unequal to the task he had 
undertaken. 

3. Solon, an illustrious Athenian, cf the race of Codrus, 
attained the di^^nity of archon 594 B. C, and was intrust- 
ed with the care of fraiDirj; for his country a new form of 
government, and a new system of lav^^s. He possessed ex- 
tensive knowledge, but wanted that intrepidity of mind 
which is necessary to the character cf a great statesman. 
His disposition was mild and temporizing ; and, without at- 
tempting to reform the m^Tiners of his countrymen, he ac- 
commodated his system to their prevailing habits and 
passions. 

4. The people claimed tliie sovereign power, and they 
received it : the rich demanded offices and dignities : the 
system cf Solon accommodated them to the utmost of their 
wishes. He divided the citizens into four classes, according 
to the measure of th^ir wealth. To the three first, the 
richer, citizens, belonged all the offices of the common- 
wealth. The fourth, the poorer class, more numerous than 
all the other three, had an equal right of suffrage with them 
in the public assembly, where all laws were framed, and 
measures of stale decreed. Consequently the w^eight of 
the latter decided every qv.cslion. 

5. To regulate in some degree the proceedings of those 
assemblies, and balance the weight of the popular interest, 
Solon instituted a senate of 400 members (rflerwards en- 
larged to 500 and GOO), with whom it was necessary that 
every measure shouLl originate before it became the subject 
of discucsion in the assembly of the people. 

6. To the court of Areopagus he committed the guar- 
dianship of the laws, and the power of enforcing them, with 
the supreme administration of justice. To this tribunal 
belonged likewise the custody of the treasures of the state, 
the care of religion, and a tutorial power overall the youth 
of the republic. The number of its judges was various at 
different periods, and the most immaculate purity of cha- 
racter was essential to that high office. 

7. The authorit}'^ of the senate and Areopagus imposed 



SECT. 10. ANCIENT HISTORY. 33 

some check on the popular assemblies ; but as these pos- 
sessed the ultimate right of decision, it was always in the 
power of ambitious demagogues to sway them to the worst 
of purposes. Continual factions divided the people, and 
corruption pervaded every department of the state. The 
public measures, the result of the interested schemes of in- 
dividuals, were often equally absurd as they were profligate. 
Athens often saw her best patriots, the wisest and most vir- 
tuous of her citizens, shameful!}^ sacriticedto the most de- 
praved and most abandoned. 

8. The particular laws of the Athenian state are more 
deserving of encomium than its form of government. The 
laws relating to debtors were mild and equitable, as were 
those which regulated the treatment of slaves — But the vas- 
salage of women, or their absolute subjection to the control 
of their nearest relations, approached too near to a state of 
servitude. The proposer of a law, found on experience 
impolitic, was lialde to punishment ; an enactment apparently 
rigorous, but probably necessary in a popular government. 

9. One most iniquitous and absurd peculiarity of the Athe- 
nian, and some other governments of Greece was the prac- 
tice of the Ostracism, a ballot of all the citizens, in which 
each wrote down the name of the person in his opinion 
most obnoxious to censure ; and he who was thus marked 
out by the greatest number of voices, though unimpeached 
of any crime, was banished for ten years from his country. 
This barbarous and disgraceful institution, ever capable of 
the grossest abuse, and generally subservient to the worst of 
purposes, has stained the character of Athens with many 
flagrant instances of public ingratitude. 

10. The manners of the Athenians formed the most 
striking contrast to those of the Lacedaemonians. The arts 
were, at Athens, in the highest esteem ; the Lacedaemonians 
despised the arts, and all who cultivated them. At Athens, 
peace was the natural state of the republic, and the refmed 
enjoyment of life the aim of all its subjects : Sparta was 
entirely a military esteiblisbment ; her subjects, when unen- 
gaged in war, were totally unoccupied. Luxury was the 
character of the Athenian, as frugality of the Spartan. 
They were equally jealous of their liberty, and equally 
brave in war. The courage of the Spartan sprung from, 
constitutional ferocity, that of the Athenian from the 
principle of honour. 

1 1 . The Spartan government had acquired solidity, while 
all the rest of Greece was torn by domestic dissensions. — - 
Athens, a prey to faction and civil disorder, surrendered her 

4.* 



34 ANCIENT HISTORY. PART I. 

liberties to Pisistratus, 550 B. C. ;fr»vlio, after various turns 
of fortune, established himself firmly in the sovereignty, ex- 
ercised a splendid and muniiicent dominion, completely 
gained the aifections of the people, and transmitted a peace- 
able crown to his sons Hippias and Hipparchiis. 

12. Hcrmodias and Arislogiton undertook to restore the 
v/ democracy; and succeeded in the attempt. Hipparchus 
was put to death ; and Hippias, dethroned, solicited a fo- 
reign aid to replace him in the sovereign t3^ Darius, the 
son of Hystaspes, meditated at this time the conquest of 
Greece. Hippias took advantage of the views of an enemy 
against his native country, and Greece was now involved in 
a war with Persia. 



XI. 



or THE STATE OF TITE PERSIAN EMPIRE, AND ITS HISTORY 
DOWN TO THE WAR WITH GREECE. 

1. The first empire of the Assyrians ended under Sarda- 
napalus, and three monarchies arose from its ruins, Nineveh, 
Babylon, and the kingdom of the Medes. 

2. The history of Babylon and of Nineveh is very im- 
perfectly known. The Medes, hitherto independent tribes, 
were united under a monarchy by Dejoces. His son Phra- 
ortes conquered Persia, but was himself vanquished by 
"^abuchodonoscr I. king of Ass3^ria, and put to death. 
>[abuchodonoser II. led the Jews into captivity, took Jeru- 
salem and Tj^re, and subdued Egypt. 

3. The history of Cyrus is involved in great uncertainty ; 
nor is it possible to reconcile or apply to one man the dif- 
ferent accounts given of him by Herodotus, Ctesias, and 
Xenophon. Succeeding his father Cambyses in the throne 
of Persia, and his uncle Cyaxares in the sovereignty of the 
viedes, he united these empires, vanquished the Babylo- 
nians and Lydians, subjected the greatest part of the 
Lesser Asia, and made himself muster of Syria and 
Arabia. 

4. He was succeeded by his son Cambyses, distinguished 
only as a tyrant and a madman. . 

5. After the death of Cambyses, Darius, the son of 
Hystaspes, was elected sovereign of Persia, a prince of 
great enterprise and ambition. Unfortunate in a rash ex- 
pedition agamst the Scythians, he projected and achieved 
the conquest of India. Inflated with success, he now medi- 



SECT. 11. ANCIENT HISTORY. 35 

tated an invasion of Greece, and cordially entered into the 
views of Hippias, who sought, by his means, to regain the 
sovereignty of Athens. 

6. Government, Manners, La^s, 4*c. of the Ancient Per- 
sians. — The government of Persia was an absolute mo- 
narchy : the v/ill of the sovereign being subject to no con- 
trol, and his person revered as sacred ; yet the education 
bestowed by those monarchs on their children, was calcu- 
lated to inspire every valuable quahty of a sovereign. 

The ancient Persians in general bestowed the utmost at- 
tention on the education of youth. Children at the age of 
five were committed to the care of the Magi, for the im- 
provement of their mind and morals. They were trained 
at the same time to every manly exercise. The sacred 
books of the Zendavesta promised to every worthy parent 
the imputed merit and reward of all the good actions of his 
children. 

7. Luxurious as they were in after times, the early Per- 
sians were distinguishedforthtir temperance, bravery, and 
virtuous simplicity of manners. They were ail trained to 
the use of arms, and displayed great intrepidity in war. 
The custom of the women following their armies to the 
field, erroneously attributed to elTeminacy, was a remnant of 
barbarous manners. 

8. The kingdom of Persia was divided into several pro- 
vinces, each under a governor or satrap, v^ho was account- 
able to the sovereign for the whole of his conduct. The 
prince, at stated times, visited his provinces in person, cor- 
recting all abuses, easing the burdens of the oppressed, and 
encouraging agriculture and the practice of the useful arts. 
Tlio laws of Persia were mild and equitable, and the utmost 
purity was observed in the administration of justice. 

9. The religion of the ancient Persians is of great an- 
tiquity. It is conjectured uiat there were two Zoroasters ; 
the first the founder of this ancient religion, and of whom 
are recorded miracles and prophecies ; the second a re- 
former of that religion, cotemporary with Darius the son 
of Hystaspes. The Zendavesta, or sacred book, compiled 
by the former, was improved and purified by the latter. 
It has been lately translated into French by M. Anquetil, 
and'appears to contain, amidst a mass of absurdity, some 
sublime truths, and excellent precepts of morality. The 
theology of the Zendavesta is founded on the doctrine of 
two opposite principles, a good and an evil, Ormusd and 
Ahriman, eternal beings who divide between them the 
government of the universe, and whose warflire must en- 



36 ANCIENT HISTORY. PART I. 

dure till the end of 12,000 years, when the good will final- 
ly prevail over the evil. A separtition will ensue of the 
votaries of each : the just shall be admitted to the imme- 
diate enjoyment of paradise ; the wicked, after a limited 
purification by fire, shall ultimately be allowed to partake 
in the blessings of eternity. Ormusd is to be adored 
through the medium of his greatest works, the sun, moon, 
and stars. The fire, the s^^mbol of the sun, the air, the 
earth, the water, have their subordinate worship. 

The morality of the Zendavesta is best known from its 
abridgment the Sadder, compiled about three centuries ago 
by the modern Guebres. It inculcates a chastened species 
of Epicurism ; allowing a free indulgence of the passions, 
while consistent with the welfare of society. It prohibits 
equally intemperance and ascetic mortification. It recom- 
mends, as precepts of religion, the cultivation of the earth, 
the planting of fruit-trees, the destruction of noxious ani- 
mals, the bringing water to a barren land. 

10. Such were the ancient Persians. But their charac- 
ter had undergone a great change before the period of the 
war with Greece. At this time they were a degenerate 
and corrupted people. Athens had recently thrown oflf 
the yoke of the Pisistratidac, and highly valued her new 
liberty. Sparta, in the ardour of patriotism, forgot all 
jealousy of her rival state, and cordially united in the de- 
fence of their common country. The Persians, in this 
contest, had no other advantage than that of numbers, an 
unequal match for superior heroism and military skill. 



XII. 

THE WAR BETWEEN GREECE AND PERSIA. 

1. The ambition of Darius the son of Hystaspes, height- 
ened by the passion of revenge, gave rise to the project of 
that monarch for the invasion of Greece. The Athenians 
had aided the people of Ionia in an attempt to throw off the 
yoke of Persia, and burnt and ravaged Sardis, the capital 
of Lydia. Darius speedily reduced the lonians to submis- 
sion, and then turned his arms against the Greeks, their 
allies ; the exile Hippias eagerly prompting the expedition. 

2. After an insolent demand of submission, which the 
Greeks scornfully refused, Darius began a hostile attack 
both by sea and land. The first Persian fleet was wrecked 
in doubling the promontory of Athos ; a second, of 600 



SECT. 12. ANCIENT HISTORY. 37 

sail, ravaged the Grecian islands ; while an immense army, 
landing in Euboea, poured down with impetuosity on Atti- 
ca. The Athenians met them on the plain of Marathon, 
and headed by Miltiades, defeated them with prodigious 
slaughter, 490 B. C. The loss of the Persians in this bat- 
tle was 6300, that of the Athenians 190. 

3. The merit of Miltiades, signally displayed in this great 
battle, was repaid by his country with the most shocking 
ingratitude. Accused of treason for an unsuccessful attack 
on the isle of Paros, his sentence of death wps commuted 
into a fine of fifty talents ; which, being unable to pay, he 
was thrown into prison, and there died of his wounds. 

4. The glory of ungrateful Athens was yet nobly sustained 
in the Persian war by Themistocles and Aristides. Darius 
dying was succeeded by his son Xerxes, the heir of his 
father's ambition, but not of his abilities. He armed, as is 
said, five millions of men, for the conquest of Greece ; 
1200 ships of war, and 3000 ships of burden. Landing in 
Thessaly, he proceeded, by rapid marches, to Thermopylae, 
a narrow defile on the Sinus Maliacus. The Athenians and 
Spartans, aided only by the Thespians, Plateans, and ^gi- 
netes, determined to withstand the invader. Leonidas, kinj^ 
of Sparta, was chosen to defend this important pass with 
6000 men. Xerxes, after a weak attempt to corrupt him, 
imperiously summoned him to lay down his arms. Let him 
come, said Leonidas, and take them. For two days the Per- 
sians in vain strove to force their way, and were repeat- 
edly repulsed with great slaughter. An unguarded track 
being at length discovered, the defence of the pass became 
a fruitless attempt on the part of the Greeks. Leonidas, 
foreseeing certain destruction, commanded all to retire but 
300 of his countr3^men. His motive was to give the Per- 
sians a just idea of the spirit of that foe whom they had to 
encounter. He, with his brave Spartans, were all cut off 
to a man, 480 B. C. A monument, erected on the spot, bore 
this noble inscription, written by Simonides ; O stranger^ 
tell it at Lacedaemo7i, that we died here in obedience to her 
laws. 

o. The Persians poured down upon Attica. The inhabi- 
tants of Athens, after convej^ing their women and children 
to the islands for security, betook themselves to their fleet, 
abandoning the city, which the Persians pillaged and burnt. 
The fleet of the Greeks, consisting of 380 sail, w^as attacked 
in the straits of Salamis, by that of the Persians, amounting 
to 1200 ships. Xerxes himself beheld from an eminence 
on the coast the total discomfiture of his squadron. He then 



38 ANCIENT HISTORY. PART I. 

fled with precipitation across the Hellespont. A second 
overthrow awaited his army by land : for Mardonius, at the 
head of 300,000 Persians, was totally defeated at Plataea 
by the combined army of the Athenians and Lacedaemoni- 
ans 479. B. C. On the same day the Greeks engaged 
and destroyed the remains of the Persian fleet at Mycale. 
From that day the ambitious schemes of Xerxes were at an 
end : and his inglorious life was soon after terminated by 
assassination. He was succeeded in the throne of Persia by 
his son Artaxerxes Longimanus, 464 B. C. 

6. At this time the national character of the Greeks was 
at its highest elevation. The common danger had annihi- 
lated all partial jealousies between the states, and given them 
union as a nation. But with the cessation of danger those 
jealousies recommenced. Sparta meanly opposed the re- 
building of deserted Athens. — Athens, rising again into 
splendour, saw with pleasure the depopulation of Sparta by 
an earthquake, and hesitated to give her aid in that juncture 
of calamity against a rebellion of her slaves. 

7. Cimon the son of Miltiades, after expelling the Persians 
from Thrace, attacked and destroyed their fleet on the coast 
of Pamphylia, and, landing his troops, gained a signal victo- 
ry over their army the same day. — Supplanted in the public 
favour by the arts of his rival Pericles, he suffered a tempo- 
rary exile ; to return only with higher popularity, and to sig- 
nalize himself still more in the service of his ungrateful coun- 
try. He attacked and totally destroyed the Persian fleet of 
300 sail ; and, landing in Cilicia, completed his triumph, by 
defeating 300,000 Persians under Megabyzes, 460 B. C. Ar- 
taxerxes now had the prudence to sue for peace, which was 
granted by the Greeks on terms most honourable to the na- 
tion. They stipulated for the freedom of all the Grecian ci- 
ties of Asia, and that the fleets of Persia should not approach 
their coasts from the Euxine to the extreme boundary of 
Pamphylia. The last fifty years were the period of the 
highest glory of the Greeks ; and the}'" owed ther prosperity 
entirely to their union. The peace with Persia dissolving 
that connection, brought back the jealousies between the 
predominant states, the intestine disorders of each, and the 
national weakness. 

8. The martial and the patriotic spirit began visibly to de- 
chne in Athens. An acquaintance with Asia, and an importa- 
tion of her wealth, introduced a relish for Asiatic manners 
and luxuries. With the Athenians, however, this luxurious 
spirit was under the guidance of taste and genius. It led to 
the cultivation of the finer arts ; and the age of Pericles, 



SECT. 13. ANCIENT HISTORY. 39 

though the national glory was in its wane, is the aera of the 
highest internal splendour and magnificence of Greece. 



XIII. 

AGE OF PERICLES. 

1. Republics, equally with monarchies, are generally 
^^gulated by a single will : only, in the former, there is 
^ more frequent change of masters. — Pericles ruled Athens 
^ith little less than arbitrary sway : and Athens pretended 
at this time to the command of Greece. She held the allied 
states in the most absolute subjection, and lavished their sub- 
sidies, bestowed for the national defence, in magnificent 
buildings, games, and festivals, for her own citizens. The 
tributary states loudly complained, but durst not call this 
domineering republic to account ; and the war of Pelopon- 
nesus, dividing the nation into tv/o great parties, bound the 
lesser cities to the strictest subordination on the predomi- 
nant powers. 

2. The state of Corinth had been included in the last 
treaty between Athens and Sparta. The Corinthians wag- 
ing war with the people of Corcyra, an ancient colony of 
their own, both parties solicited the aid of Athens, who took 
part with the latter ; a measure which the Corinthians com- 
plained of, not only as an infraction of the treaty with Sparta, 
but as a breach of a general rule of the national policy, that 
no foreign power should interfere in the disputes between a 
colony and its parent state. War was proclaimed on this 
ground between Athens and Lacedaeraon, each supported by 
its respective allies. The detail of the war, which contin- 
ued for twenty-eight years, with various and alternate suc- 
cess, is to be found in Thucydides. Pericles died before its 
termination ; a splendid ornament of his country, but re- 
proached as a corrupter of her manners, by fostering the 
spirit of luxury. Alcibiades ran a similar career, with equal 
talents, equal ambition, and still less purity of moral princi- 
ple. In the interval of a truce with Sparta, he inconsider- 
ately projected the conquest of Sicily ; and, failing in the 
attempt, was, on his return to Athens, condemned to death 
for treason. He hesitated not to wreak his vengeance 
against his country, by selling his services, first to Sparta, 
and afterwards to Persia. Finally, he purchased his peace 
with his country, by betraying the power which protected 



40 ANCIENT HISTORY. PART I. 

him, and return to Athens the idol of a populace as versatile 
as worthless. 

3. A fatal defeat of the Athenian fleet at iEgos Potamos, 
by Lysander, reduced Athens to the last ex^tremity ; and the 
Lacedaemonians blockaded the city by land and sea. The 
war was ended by the absolute submission of the Athenians, 
who agreed to demolish their port, to limit their fleet to 
twelve ships, and undertake for the future no military en- 
terprise, but under command of the Lacedaemonians, 403 
B.C. 

4. It is to the same L5^sander, who terminated the Pelo- 
ponnesian war so gloriously for Lacedaemon, that history as- 
cribes the first great breach of the constitution of his coun- 
try, by the introduction of gold into that republic. — Lysand- 
er, after the reduction of Athens, abolished the popular 
government in that state, and substituted in its place thirty 
tyrants, whose power was absolute. The most eminent of 
the citizens fled from their country ; but a band of patriots, 
headed by Thrasybulus, attacked, vanquished, and expelled 
the usurpers, and once more re-established the democracy. 

5. One event which happened at this time reflected more 
disgrace on the Athenian name than their national humilia- 
tion : This was the persecution and death of Socrates, a phi- 
losopher who was himself the patron of every virtue which 
he taught. The sophists, whose futile logic he derided and 
exposed, represented him as an enemy to the religion of his 
country, because, without regard to the popular superstitions, 
he led the mind to the knowledge of a Supreme Being, the 
Creator and Ruler of the Universe ; and the belief of a fu- 
ture state of retribution. His defence he made himself with 
the manly fortitude o{ conscious innocence ; but in vain : his 
judges were his personal enemies ; and he was condemned 
to die by poison, 397 B. C. (See section XXIII. § 5.) 

G. On the death of Darius Nothus, his eldest son Arta- 
xerxes Mnemon, succeeded to the empire of Persia. His 
younger brother Cyrus formed the project of dethroning 
him ; and, with the aid of 13,000 Greeks, engaged him near 
Babylon ; but was defeated and slain ; a just reward of his 
most culpable enterprise. The remainder of the Grecian 
army, to the amount of 10,000, under the command of Xen- 
ophon, made a most amazing retreat, traversing a hostile 
country of 1600 miles in extent, from Babylon to the banks 
of the Euxine. Xenophon has beautifully written the his- 
tory of this expedition ; but has painted the character of Cy- 
rus in too flattering colours, and, without the smallest cen- 
sure of his criminal ambition. 



7. The Greek cities of Asia had taken part with Cyrus. 
Sparta was engaged to defend her countrymen, and conse- 
quently was involved in a war with Persia. Had Athens 
added her strength, the Greeks might have once more de- 
fied the power of Asia ; but jealousy kept the states divided, 
and even hostile to each other ; and the gold of Artaxerxes 
excited a general league in Greece against Lacedaenion. 
Agesilaus, King of Sparta, sustained for a considerable 
time the honour of his country, and won some important 
battles in Asia ; but others were lost in Greece ; and a 
naval defeat near Cnidos utterly destroyed the Lacedaemo- 
nian fleet. Finally, to escape total destruction, the Spartans 
fiued for peace, and obtained it, by the sacrifice to Persia 
of all the Asiatic colonies, 387 B. C. Artaxerxes further 
demanded, and obtained for his allies the Athenians, the 
islands of Scyros, Lemnos, and Imbros. A disgraceful 
treaty ; a mortifying picture of the humiliation of the 
Greeks, 



XIV. 

THE REPUBLIC OF THEBES. 

"1 . While Athens and Sparta were thus visibly tending 
to decline, the Theban Republic emerged from obscurity, 
and rose for a time to a degree of splendour eclipsing all 
its cotemporary states. The republic was divided by 
faction, one party supporting its ancient democracy, and the 
other aiming at the establishment of an oligarchy. The 
*. -^T* courted the aid of the Spartans, who embraced that 
occasiof' to take possession of the citadel. Four hundred 
of the exiled Thebans fled for protection to Athens. Among 
these was Felopidas, who planned and accomplished the 
deliverance of \m country. Disguising himself and twelve 
of his friends as peasants^ he entered Thebes in the even- 
ing, and joining a patriotic party of the citizens, they S'lr- 
prised the heads of the usurpation amid the tumult of a 
feast, and put them all to death. Epaminondas, the frieul 
of Pelopidas, shared with him in the glory of this enter- 
prise ; and attacking, with the aid of 5000 Athenians, the 
Lacedaemonian garrison, drove them entirely out of the 
Theban territory. 

2. A war necessarily ensued between Thebes and Sparta. 
in which the former had the aid of Athens. This, however., 
>^a8 but for a season. Thebes singly opposed the power 

-5 



4£ AlWl^T HISTORY^ TART f, 

ef Sparta, and the league of Greece ; but Epaminondas 
and Pelopidas were her generals. The latter, amidst a 
career of glory, perished in an expedition against the ty- 
rant of Pheraea. Epaminondas, triumphant at Leuctra 
and Mantinea, fell in that last engagement, and with him 
expired the gloiy of his country, 363 B. C. Athens and 
Sparta were humbled at the battle of Mantinea. Thebes 
was victorious ; but she was undone by the death of Epami- 
nondas. All parties were tired of the war ; and Arta- 
xerxes, more powerful among those infatuated states than 
in his own dominions, dictcited the terms of the treaty. It 
was stipulated, that each power should retain what it pos- 
sessed ; and that the lesser states, now free iVom the yoke 
of the greater, should remain so. 



XV. 

PHILIP OF MACEDON. 

i. Greece was now in the most abject situation : the 
Spirit of patriotism appeared utterly extinct, and military 
glory at an end. Athens seemed to have lost all ambition : 
the pleasures of luxury had entirely supplanted heroic vir- 
tue : poets, musicians, sculptors, and comedians, were now 
the only greeit men of Attica. Sparta, no less changed from 
the simplicity of her ancient manuers, and her power 
abridged by the new independency of the states of Pelopon- 
nesus, was in no capacity to attempt a recovery of her for- 
mer greatness. In this situation, Philip of Mace Jon forift?, 
ed the ambitious project of bringing under his dc^ini<,u-i/* ' ' 
whole of Greece. 

2. He had mounted the throne of Macedon by popular 
choice in violation of the natural right of the nearer heir? 
to the crown ; and he secured his power by the success of 
his arms against the Ilhrians, Paeonians, and Athenians, who 
espoused the interest of his competitors. Uniting to great 
military talents the most consummate artifice and address, 
he had his pensionaries in all the states of Greece, who 
directed to his advantage every public measure. The mis- 
erable policy of these states, embroiled in perpetual quar- 
rels, co-operated with his desigiis. A sacrilegious attempt 
of the Phocians to plunder the temple of Delphos excited 
the Sacred War, in which almost all the republics took a 
part ; and Philip's aid being courted by the Thebans and 
Thessalians, he began hostilities by invading Phocis, the 
key to the territory of Attica. 4i§cbmes the orator, bribed 



SFX'T. 16. ANCIENT KISTOPtV. 

to his interest, attempted to quiet the alarms of the Athe- 
nians, by ascribing to Philip a design only of punishing sa- 
crilege, and vindicating the cause of Apollo. Demosthenes, 
with true patriotism, exposed the artful designs of the inva- 
der, and with the most animated eloquence roused his coun- 
tryman to a vigorous effort for the preservation of the 
national liberties. But the event was unsuccessful. The 
battle of Cheronaea, fought 337 B. C. decided the fate of 
Greece, and subjected all her states to the dominion of the-. 
King of Macedon. But it was not his policy to treat them 
as a conquered people. They retained their separate and 
independent governments, while he controlled and directed 
all the national measures. Convoking a general council of 
the states, Philip was appointed commander in chief of the 
forces of Greece ; and he laid before them his project for 
the conquest of Persia, appointing each Republic to furnisk 
its proportional subsidies. On the eve of this great enter- 
prise, Philip was assassinated by Pausanias, a captain of his 
guards, in revenge of a private injury, 336 B. C. The 
Athenians, on the death of Philip, meanly expressed the 
most tumultuous joy, in the hope of a recovery of their 
liberty ; but this visionary prospect was never realised. 
The spirit of the nation was gone ; and in their subsequent 
revolutions they only changed their masters. 



XVI. 

-ALEXANDER. THE GREAT. 

1. Alexandeh, the son of Philip, succeeded%t the age of 
twenty, to the throne of Macedon, and, after a few success- 
ful battles against the revolted states, to the command of 
Greece. Assembling the deputies of the nation at Corinth, 
he commjinicated to them his resolution of prosecuting the 
designs of his father for the conquest of Persia. 

2. With an army of 30,000 foot, and 5000 horse, the sum 
of 70 talents, and provisions only for a single month, he cross- 
ed the Hellespont, and, in traversing Phr3^gia, visited the 
tomb of Achilles. Darius Codomanus, resolved to crush at 
once this inconsiderate youth, met him on the banks of the 
Granicus with 100,000 foot and 10,000 horse. The Greeks 
swam the river, their king leading the van, and attacking 
the astonished Persians, left 20,000 dead upon the field, nud 
put to flight their whole army. Drawing from his fir»t 
success a presage of continued victory, Alex^v^-l^vnQw s?.r>t 



44 rANCIENT HISTORY, 



PART 1. 



home his fleet, leaving to his army the sole alternative, thal^ 
they must subdue Asia or perish. Prosecuting their course 
for some time without resistance, the Greeks were attacked 
by the Persians in a narrow valley of Cilicia, near the town 
of Issus. The Persian host amounted to 400,000 ; but their 
situation was such that only a small part could come into ac- 
tion, and they were defeated with prodigious slaughter. 
The loss of the Persians in this battle v/as 110,000 ; that of 
the Greeks (according to Q,. Curtius) only 460. 

3. The history of Alexander by Quintus Curtius, though 
a most elegant composition, is extremely suspicious on the 
score of authentic information. Arrian is the best au- 
thority. 

4. The generosity of Alexander was displayed after thi? 
battle of Issus, in hig attention to his noble prisoners, the 
mother, the wife and family of Darius. To the credit of 
Alexander, it must be owned that humanity, however over- 
powered, and at times extinguished by his passions, certain- 
ly formed a part of his natural character. 

5. The consequence of the battle of Issus was the sub- 
mission of all Syria. Damascus, where Darius had deposit- 
ed his chief treasures, was betrayed and given up by its go- 
vernor. The Phoenicians were pleased to see themselves 
thus avenged for the oppression they had suffered under the 
yoke of Persia. 

G. Alexander had hitherto borne his good fortune with 
moderation : Felix, says Curtius, se hac continentia ad ultimum 
vitce perseverare potuisset ; sed iiondum Fortuna se animo 
cjusinfuderct. He directed his course towards Tyre, and 
desired admittance to perform a sacrifice to Hercules. The 
T) rians shut their gates, and maintained for seven months a 
noble defence. The city was at length taken by storm ; and 
the victor glutted his revenge by the inhuman massacre of 
<3000 of the inhabitants. The fate of Gaza, gloriously ds- 
fendcd by Baetis, was equally deplorable to its citizens and 
more disgraceful to the conqueror. Ten thousand of the 
former were sold into slavery and its brave defender drag- 
ged at the wheels of the victor's chariot : Gloriante rege^ 
Achillem, a quo g34ius ipse deduceret, vmitaium se esse poena 
in hostem. capienda. Curt. 

7. The taking of Gaza opened Egypt to Alexander, and 
the whole country summitted without opposition. Amidst 
the most incredible fatigues, he now led his army through the 
deserts of Lybia, to visit the temple of his father Jiipiter 
Ammon. On his return he built Alexandria, at the mouth 
of the Nile, afterwards the capital of the Lower Egypt, and 



£ECT. iC. ANCIENT mSTOR¥, 'i • 

one of the most flourishing cities in the world. Twenty 
other cities of the same name were reared by him m the 
course of his conquests. It is such works as these that 
iustly entitle the Macedonian to the epithet of Great. 13y 
rearino- in the midst of deserts those nurseries of population 
and oflndustry, he repaired the waste and havoc of his coiv 
quests But for those monuments of his glory, he would 
have merited no other epithet than that assigned him by the 
Brahmins of India, The Mighty Murderer. 

8. Returning from Egypt, Alexander traversed Assyria 
and was met at Arbela by Darius, at the head of /00,000 
men. The Persian had proffered peace , consenting to yield 
the whole country from the Euphrates to the Hellespont, to 
ffive Alexander his daughter in marriage, and the immense 
8um of 10,000 talents. But these terms were haughtily re- 
jected, and peace refused, but upon the unqualified submjs- 
sion of his enemy. The Persians were defeated at Arbela, 
with the loss of 300,000 men. Darius fled from province 
10 province. At length betrayed by Bessus, one of his own 
satraps, he was cruelly murdered ; and the /^J^^J^^;;^^: 
which had subsisted for 206 years from the time of Cyru. 
the Great, submitted to the conqueror, 330 b. G. 

Q Alexander now projected the conquest of mdia, firmly 
persuaded that the Gods had decreed him the sovereignty ot 
the whole habitable -lobe. He penetrated to the Ganges and 
would have advanced to the Eastern Ocean, had the spirit ot 
his army kept pace with his ambition. But his troops see- 
aig no end to their toils, refused to proceed He returned 
^0 the Indus, from whence, sending round his heet to the 
Persian Gulph under Nearchu&, he marched his army across 
the deserts to Persepolis. ,. . . t • , 

10 Indi-nant that he had found a limit to his conquesls 
he abandoned himself to every excess of luxury and debauch^ 
erv The arrogance of his nature, and the ardour of his 
passions heightened by continual intemperance, broke out 
into the most outrageous excesses of cruelty, tor which, m 
the few intervals of sober reflection, his ingenuous mind sui- 
fered the keenest remorse. From Persepolis he returned 
to Babylon, and there died in a fit of debauch, m the thirty - 
third year of his age, and thirteenth of his reign, o24 B. C. 

11 Of the character of Alexander the most opposite and 
contradictory estimates have been formed. While by some 
he is esteemed nothing better than a fortunate madman, he is 
bv others celebrated for the grandeur, wisdom, and solidity 
of his political views. Truth is rarely to be found in extremti 
censure or applause. We may allow to Alexander the spi- 



nc, 



ASrcIENT HISTORV. PART I, 

lit and the talents of a great military genius, without com- 
bining with these the sober plans of a profouiul politician. In 
a moral view of his character, we see an excellent and ino-e- 
nuous nature corrupted at length bvan unvarying currenfof 
success, and a striking example ot the fatal violence of the 
passions, when eminence of fortune removes all restraint, 
und flattery stimulates to their uncontrolled indulgence. 



XVI r. 

SLXCESSORS OF ALEXAXDER. 

1. AiEXANDEi^, on lii.s death-bed, named no successor, 
vxit gave his ring to Perdiccas, one of his olhccrs. When 
his courtiers asked liim to whom he wisiied the empire to 
devolve upon his death, he replied, '' To the most wor- 
thy," and he is ^aid to have added, tliat he foresaw this lo.-- 
acy would prepare for him very extraordinary funeral rites • 
a prediction which was fully verilied. ' 

2. Perdiccas, sensible that his pretensions would not 
justily a direct assumption of the 2;overnment of this vast 
.>mpire, brought about a division of the whole among thirty- 
tiiree of the principal otiicers : and trusting to their inevit- 
able dissensions, he proposed by that means to reduce all 
ot them uiider his own authority. Hence arose a series of 
wais and iningues, of which the detail is barren both of 
amusement and useful information. It is suihcient to say, 
•hat their consequence was a total extirpation of the family 
of Alexander, and a new partition of the empire int<. four 
great monarchies, the shares of Ptolemy, Lysimachus, 
Cassaiider, and .Seleucus : Of these the most powerful 
were that of Syria under Seleucus and his descendants • 
and that of Egypt under the Ptolemies. ' 

" We cannot (says Condillac) tix our attention on the 
history ot the successors of Alexander, though a great 
theatre is opened to our view, n variety of scenes,' and 
multiplied catastrophes. A picture is often displeasine; 
Irom the very circumstance of its greatness. We lose the 
connection of its parts, because the eye cannot take them in 
^t once. Still less will a large picture give us pleasure 
if every part of it presents a different scene, each uncon-' 
, nectcd with the other." Such is the history of the suc- 
• essors of Alexander. 



SECT. l^'. ANCIENT HISTORY. 47 



XVIII. 

FALL AND CON^tUEST OF GREECE, 

1. Nor is the history of Greece from the period of the 
death of Alexander any longer an interesting or pleasing ob- 
ject of contemplation. Demosthenes once more made a 
Boble attempt to vindicate the national freedom, and to rouse 
his countrymen, the Athenians, to shake oli'the yoke of Ma- 
cedon. But it was too late. The pacific counsels of FhO'- 
cion suited better the languid spirit of this once illustrious 
people. 

2. The history of the different republics present from 
this time nothing but a disgusting series of uninteresting 
revolutions ; with the exception only of that last effort 
made by the Achaean states to revive the expiring liberty 
of their country. The republic of Adiaia was a league of 
a few of the smaller states to vindicate their freedom against 
the domineering spirit of the greater. They committe<i 
the governmet of the league to Aratus of Sicyon, with the 
title of Praetor, a young man of high ambition, who imme- 
di.itely conceived the more extensive project ot^ rescuing 
the wliole of Greece from the dominion of Macedon. But 
the jealousy of the greater states rendered this schcins 
abortive. Sparta refused to range herself under the gui- 
dance of the Praetor o{ Achaia : and Aratus forgetting his 
patriotic designs, sought only now to wreck his vengeance 
against the Lacedaemonians. For this purpose, with the 
most inconsistent p\)licy, he courted the aid even of the 
Macedonians ; the very tyrants who had enslaved his couu' 

3. The period was now come for the intervention of a 
foreign power, which was to reduce all under its wide- 
spreading dominion. The Romans were at this time the 
most powerful of all the contemporary nations. The peo- 
ple of JE,io\i<\, attacked by the Macedonians, with a rash 
policy, besought the aid of the Romans, who, eager to add 
to their dominion this devoted country, cheerfully obeyed 
the summons, and speedily accomplished the reduction of 
Macedonia. Perseus, its last sovereign, w.'us led captive to 
Rome, and graced the triumph of Paulus jEmilius, 167 
B. C. From that period, the Romans were hastily advanc- 
ing to the dominion of all Greece ; a progress, in which 
their art was more conspicuous than their virtue. They 
gained their end by fostering dissensions betvreen the state? , 



'fO ASCIENT HIS TORY. PATtT 7. 

which they directed to their own advantage ; corrupting 
their principal citizens, and using, in tine, every art of the 
most insidious policy. A pretext was only wanting to 
unsheath the sword ; and this was furnished by the Achae- 
an states, who insulted the deputies of imperial Rome. 
This drew on them at once the thunder of the Roman arms : 
Metellus marched his legions into Greece, gave them battle, 
and entirely defeated them. Mummius the consul, termi- 
nated the work, and made an easy conquest of the whole of 
Greece, which from that period became a Roman province, 
under the name of Achaia, 146 B. C. 

4. Rome had acquired from her conquests a flood of 
wealth, and began now to manifest a taste for luxury and a 
spirit of refinement. In these points Greece was to het 
conquerors an instructor and a model : 

Graecla capta ferum victorum cepit, et artes 
liitulit agresti Latio. 

Hence, even though vanquished, she was regained witl^'^ 
a species of respect by her ruder masters. 



XIX. 

POLITICAL REFLECTIONS ARISING FROM THE EISTORY OF THE 
STATES OF GREECE. 

1. The revolutions which the states of Greece under" 
went, and the situations into which they were thrown by 
their connexion and dillerences with each other, and their 
wars with foreign nations, were so various, that their histor\ 
is a school of instruction in political science. The surest 
test of the truth or falsehood of abstract principles of poli- 
tics, is their application to actual exj^erience and to the his- 
tory of nations. 

2. The oppression which the slates of Greece suffered 
under their ancient despots, who were subject to no consti- 
tutional control, was amost justitiable motive for their esta- 
blishing a new form of government, which promised them 
the enjoyment of greater political freedom. We beheve, 
too, that those new forms of government were framed by 
their virtuous legislators in the true spirit of patriotism. 
But as to the real merits of those political fdjrics, it is cer- 
tain that they were very fir from corresponding in practice 
with what was expected from them in theory. We seek in 
rain, either in the history of Athens or Lacedaemon, for the 
beautiful idea of a well ordered commonwealth. The re 



5ART 1§. AJTCIENT HISTORY. 4S 

volutions of government which thcj'^ were ever experience- 
ing, the eternal factions with which they were embroiled, 
plainly demonstrate that there was a radical defect in the 
structure of the machine, which precluded the possibility 
of regular motion. The condition of the people under 
those governments was such as partook more of servitude 
and oppression than that of the subjects of the most des- 
potic monarchies. The slaves formed the actual majority 
of the inhabitants in ail the states of Greece. To these, 
the free citizens were rigorous bond-masters : and bondage 
being a consequence of the contraction of debts even by a 
free man, a great proportion even of these were subject ta 
the tyrannical control of their fellow-citizens. Nor were 
their richer classes in the actual enjoyment of indepen= 
dence. The}^ were perpetually divided into factions, which 
servilely ranked themselves under the banners of the con- 
tending chiefs of the republic. Those parties were kept 
together solely by corruption. The whole was therefore 
a system of servility and debasement of spirit, which left 
nothing of a free or ingenuous nature in the condition of 
individuals, nor any thing that could furnish encomium to n 
real advocate for the dignity of human nature. 

Such was the condition of the chief republics of antiqui- 
ty. Their governments promised in theory, what they 
never conferred in practice, the political happiness of the 
citizens. 

3. "In democracy (says Dr. Fergusson), men must love 
equality ; they must respect the rights of their fellow-citi- 
zens : they must be satisfied with that degree of considera- 
tion they can procure by their abilities fairly measured 
against those of an opponent : they must labour for the pub- 
lic without hope of profit ; they must reject every attempt 
to create a personal dependence." — This is the picture of 
a republic in theory. If we reverse this picture in every 
single particular, and take its direct opposite, we shall 
have the true portrait of a republican government in prac- 
tice. 

4. It is the fundamental theory of Montesquieu's Spirit 
of Lams, that the three distinct forms of government, the 
monarchical, despotical, and republican, are influenced by 
the three separate principles of honour, fear, and virtue ; 
and this theory is the foundation on which the author builds 
a great part of his political doctrines. That each of these 
principles is exclusively essential to its respective form of 
government, but unnecessary and even prejudicial in the 
others, is a position contrary both to reason and to truth. 



^•^ AJTCIENT HISTORY. PART I. 

No form of government can subsist where every one of 
those principles has not its operation. The admission of 
such a theor}^ leads to the most mischievous conclusions ; 
as for example, that in monarchies the state dispenses with 
virtue in its officers and magistrates ; that pubhc employ- 
ments ought to be venal ; and that crimes, if kept secret, 
are of no consequence. 

5. It is only in the inlant periods of the Grecian history, 
that we are to look for those splendid examples of patriot- 
ism and the heroic virtue, which tiie ardent mind of uncor- 
rupted youth Avill ever delight to contemplate. The most 
remarkable circumstance which strikes us on comparing the 
latter with the more early periods of the history ot'' the 
Greeks, is the total change in the genius and spirit of the 
people. The ardour of patriotism, the thirst of military 
glory, the enthusiasm of liberty, dechne with the rising 
grandeur and opulence of the nation : and an enthusiasm 
succeeds of another species, and far less worthy in its aim ; 
an admiration of the fine arts, a violent passion for the ob- 
jects of taste, and for the refinements of luxury.— This 
leads us to consider Greece in the li2;ht in which, afler the 
loss of her liberty, she still continued to attract the admira- 
tion of other nations. 



XX. 

STATE OF THE ARTS IN GHEECE. 

1. It is not among the Greeks that we are to look for 
the greatest improvements in the useful and necessary arts 
of life. In agriculture, manufactures, commerce, they 
never were greatly distinquished.— But in those which are 
termed the Fine Arts, Greece surpassed all the cotempora- 
ry nations : and the monuments of these which yet remain, 
are the models of imitation, and the confessed standard of 
excellence, in the judgment of the most poHshed nations of 
modern times. 

2. After the defeat of Xerxes, the active spirit of the 
Athenians, which would have otherwise lanquished for want 
of an object, taking a new direction or luxury, displayed 
Itself signally in all the works of taste in the fine arts. 
The administration of Pericles was the aera of luxury and 
splendour. The arts broke out at once with surprising his- ^ 
ire, and ar hitecture, sculpture, and painting, were carried 
to the summit of perfection. This golden age of the aris 



SECT. 20. ANCIENT HISORYT. &2 

In Greece endured for about a century, till after the death, 
of Alexander the Great. 

3. The Greeks were the parents of that system of ar- 
chitecture which is universally allowed to be the most 

perfect. . 

The Greek architecture consisted of three distmct 
orders ; the Doric, the Ionic, and Corinthian. 

The Doric has a masculine grandeur, and a superior air 
of strength to both the others. It is therefore best adapted 
to works of great mas^nitude and of a sublime character. 
The character of sublimity is essentially connected with 
chasteness and simplicity. Of this order is the temple of 
Theseus at Athens, built^ten years after the battle of Mar- 
athon, and at this day almost entire. 

The Ionic order *is light and elegant. The former has a 
mascuUne grandeur ; the latter a feminine elegance. The 
Ionic is likewise simple ; for simplicity is an essential requi- 
site in true beauty. Of this order were the temple of 
Apollo at Miletus, that of the Delphic Oracle, andthe tem- 
ple of Diana at Ephesus. 

The Corinthian marks an age of luxury and magnificence, 
when pomp and splendour had become the predominant pas- 
sion, but had not yet extinguished the taste for the sublime 
and beautiful. It attempts therefore an union of all these 
characters, but satisfies not the chastened judgment, and 
pleases only a corrupted taste. 



First unadorned. 



*' And nobly pluin, the roaniy Dorie rose 
*' The Ionic then, with decent matron grace, 
" Her airy yiiilar heav'd ; hixurious last 
, ' ♦« The rich Corinthian spread her wanton wreath " 

Thompsok's Liberty y Pari 2, 

4. The Tuscan and the Composite orders are of Ttahan 
origin. The Etruscan architecture appears to be nearly al- 
lied to the Grecian, but to possess an inferior degree of ele- 
gance. The Trajan column at Rome is of this order ; less 
remarkable for the beauty of its proportions, than for the 
admirable sculpture which decorates it. — The Composite 
Order is what its name implies ; it shows that the Greeks 
had in the three original orders exhausted all the principles^ 
of grandeur and beauty ; and th;it it was not possible to 
frame a fourth, but by combining the former. 

5. The Gothic architecture ofters no contradiction to 
these observations. The effect which it produces cannot be 
altogether accounted for from the rules of symmetry or har- 
ma^y in the proportions between the several parts ; but de- 
pends on n certain idea of vastness, gloominess, and solem- 
nity, which are' powerful ingredients ii^ the sublime. 



•52 ANCIENT HISfOEY. TART "T. 

6. Sculpture was brought by the Greeks to as high per- 
fection as architecture. The remains of Grecian sculpture 
■are at this day the most perfect models of the art ; and the 
modern artists have no means of attaining to excellence so 
-certain as the study of those great masterpieces. 

7. The excellence of the Greeks in sculpture may per- 
haps be accounted for chiefly from their having the human 
figure often before their eyes quite naked, and in all its va- 
rious attitudes both in the Palaestra^ and in their public 
games. The antique statues have therefore a grandeur uni-, 
ted with perfect simplicity, because the attitude is not the re-1 
suit of an artificial disposition of the figure, as in the mo-l 
dern academies, but is nature unconstrained. Thus in the 
Dying Gladiator, when we observe the relaxation of the 
muscles, and the visible failure of strength and life, we can- 
not doubt that nature was the sculptor's immediate model of 

. imitation.* 

8. And this nature was in reality superior to what we now 

see in the ordinary race of men. The constant practice of 

gymnastic exercises gave a finer conformation of body than 

what is now to be found in the ■ itiated pupils of modern ef- 

.feminacy, the artificial children of modern fashion. ^ 

9. A secondary cause of the eminence of the Greeks ia t 
Ihe arts of design, was their theology, which furnished an 
ample eiEercise for the genius of the sculptor and painter. 

10. We must speak with more diffidence of the abihty of 
ihe Greeks in painting, than we do of their superiority in 
sculpture ; because the existing specimens of the former are 
\rery few, and the pieces which are preserved are probably 
jiot the most excellent. But in the want of actual evidence, 
we have every presumption that the Greeks had attained to 
equal perfection in the art of painting and in sculpture : for 
if we iind the judgment given by ancient Avriters of their ex-= 
cellence in sculpture, confirmed by the universal assent of 
the best critics among the moderns, we have just reason to 
presume an equal rectitude in the judgment which the same 
ancient writers have pronounced upon their paintings. If 
Pliny is right in his opinion of the merits of those statues 
which yet remain, the Venus of Praxiteles, and the Laocoon 
of Agesander, Polydoris, and Athenodorus, we have no rea- 
son to suppose his taste to be less just, when he celebrates 
the merits, and critically characterises the different manners 
of Zeuxis,Appelles, Parrhasius,Protogenes, and Timanthes, 
whose works have perished. 

* Cresilas vubieraium cle/icientem fsQit^ ex guo possit intQlUgi Qiuan 
turn rs3iei Gnimi, Pliia. llTj, ^6, 



SECT. 21. ANCIENT tUSTQKY* ^B 

11. The paintings found in Herculaneum, Pompeii, the 
Sepulchrum Nasonianum at Rome, were probably the work 
of Greek artists ; for the Romans were never eminent in any 
of the arts dependant on design. These paintings exhibit 
great knowledge of proportions, and of the chiaro-obscura ; 
but betray an ignorance of the rules of perspective. 

12. The music of the ancients appears to have been very 
greatly inferior to that of the moderns. 

13. The peculiar genius of the Greeks in the fme arts^ 
extended its effects to the revolutions of their states, and in- 
fluenced their fate as a nation. 



XXL 

OP THE GREEK POETS. 

1. The Greeks were the first who reduced th€ athletic 
exercises to a system, and considered them as an object of 
general attention and importance. The Panathenaean, and 
afterwards the Olympic, the Pythian, Nemaean, and Isthmian 
games were under the regulation of the laws. They con- 
tributed essentially to the improvement of the nation : and, 
while they cherished martial ardour, and promoted hardiness 
and agility of body, cultivated likewise urbanity and polite- 
ness. 

2. The games of Greece v/ere not confined to gymnastic 
or athletic exercises. They encouraged competitions in ge- 
nius and learning. They were the resort of the poets, the 
historians, and the philosophers. 

3. In all nations poetry is of greater antiquity than prose 
composition. The earliest prose writers in Greece, Phere- 
eydes of Scyros, and Cadmus of Miletus, were 350 years 
posterior to Homer. Any remains of the more ancient po- 
ets, as Linus, Orpheus, &c. are extremely suspicious. Ho- 
mer is generally supposed to have flourished about 907 B. 
C. ; to have followed the occupation of a wandering minstrel, 
and to have composed his poems in detached fragments, and 
separate ballads, and episodes. Pisistratus, about 540 B. C. 
employed some learned men to collect and methodize these 
fragm.ents ; and to this we owe the complete poems of the 
Iliad and Odyssey. The distinguishing merits of Homer are, 
his profound knowledge of human nature, his faithful and 
minute description of ancient manners, his genius for the 
BXiblime and beautiful, and the harmony of his poetical num- 

6 



il4 ANCIENT HISTORY. FART 1, 

]ieTS, His fidelit}^ as an historian has been questioned ; but 
the great outlines of his narrative are probably authentic. 

4. Hesiod was nearly cotemporary with Homer : a poet, 
of vvho-e merits we should be little sensible, were they not 
seen through the medium of an immense antiquity. The 
poem of the Works and Days contains some judicious pre- 
cepts of agriculture. The Theogony is an obscure history 
of the origin of the Gods, and the formation of the universe. 

5. About two centuries after Homer and Hesiod, flourished 
Archilochus, the inventor of Iambic verse ; Terpander, equal- 
ly eminent as a poet and a musician ; Sappho, of whose com- 
position we have two exquisite odes ; Alcasus and Simonides, 
of whom there are some tine fragments ; and Pindar and 
Anacreon, who have left enough to allow an accurate esti- 
mate of their merits. 

6. Pindar was esteemed by the ancients the chief of the 
lyric poets. He possesses unbounded fancy, and great sub- 
limity of imagery ; but his disgressions are so rapid and so 
frequent, that we cannot discover the chain of thought ; and 
Lis expression is allowed, even by Longinus, to be often ob- 
scure and unintelligible. 

7. Anacreon is a great contrast to Pindar. His fancy 
suggests only familiar and luxurious pictures. He has no 
comprehension of the sublime, but contents himself with 
the easy, the graceful and the wanton. His morality is 
loose, and his sentiments little else than the effusions of a 
voluptuar}^ 

8. The collection termed Anthologia, which consists 
chiefly of ancient epigrams, contains many valuable speci- 
mens of the taste and poetical fancy of the Greeks, and 
contributes materially to the illustration of their manners. 

The best of the modern epigrams may be traced to this 
source. 

9. The 3Pra of the origin of dramatic composition among 
the Greeks, is about 590 B. C. Thespis was cotemporary 
with Solon. V/ithin little more than a century the Greek 
drama was carried to its highest perfection ; for iEschylus 
died 45G B. C. iEschylus wrote sixty-six tragedies ; for 
thirteen of which he gained the lirst prize of drama- 
tic poetry at the Olympic games. Only seven are now 
extant. Like Shakspeare, his genius is sublime, and his 
imagination unbounded. He disdained regularity of plan, 
and all artificial restriction ; but unfortunately he disdained 
likewise the restraints of decency and of good morals. 

10. Euripides and Sophocles flourished about fifty years 
after iEschylus. Euripides is most masterly in painting the 
passion of love both in its tenderest emotions and in it? most 



SECT. 21. AKCIEXT HISTORV. Oi> 

violent paroxysms : yet the characlers of his women demon- 
stnite that he had no great opinion of the virtues of the sex. 
Lon^inus does not rate higli his talent for the sublime ; but 
he possessed a much superior excellence ; his verses, witJi 
great eloquence and harmony breath the most admirable 
morahty. There remain twenty tragedies of Euripides ; and 
of these the Medea is deemed the most excellent. 

11. Sophocles shared with Euripides the palm of dra-» 
matic poetry ; and is judged to have surpassed him in th»3 
grand and sublime. Of 120 tragedies which he composed, 
only seven remain. They display great knowledge of the 
human heart, and a general chastity and simplicity of ex- 
pression, which give the greater force to the occasional 
strokes of the sublime. The Oedipus of Sophocles is es- 
teemed the most perfect production of the Greek stage. 

12. The Greek comedy is divided into the ancient, the 
middle, and the nezv. The first was a licentious satire and 
mimicry of real personages exhibited by name upon the 
stage. The laws repressed this extreme licence, and gave 
birth to the middle comedy, which continued the satirical 
delineation of real persons but under fictitious names. The 
last improvement consisted in banishing all personal satire, 
and confining comedy to a delineation of manners. This 
was the new comedy. Of the first species, the ancient, we 
have no remains. The dramas of Aristophanes are an ex- 
ample of the second or middle comedy. The grossness of 
his raillery, and the malevolence which frequently inspired 
it, are a reproach to the morals of that people which could 
tolerate it. Yet his works have their value, as throwing liglit 
upon ancient manners. 

13. Of the new comedy Menander was the bright exam- 
ple ; possessing a vein of the most delicate wit, with the ut- 
most purity of moral sentiment. Uniortunately we have 
nothing of him remaining but a few fragments preserved br 
Athenajus. We see a great deal of his merits, however, in 
his copyist and translater, Terence. 

14. The actors both in the Greek and Roman theatres 
wore masks, on which the features were strongly painted, 
and the mouth so constructed as to increase the power ot 

the voice.' It is probable the tragedy and comedy of ths 

Greeks and Romans were set to music, and sung like tha 
recitatative in the Italian opera ; and sometimes one person 
was employed to recite or sing the part, and another to per- 
form the corresponding action or gesticulation. 

15. The Mimes were burlesque parodies on the seriou- 
tragedy and comedy, The Pantomimes consisted solely rf 
gesticulation, and were carried to great perfection. 



66 ANCIENT HISTOE.Y. PART I,. 

XXII. 

OF THE GREEK HISTORIANS. 

1. The most eminent of the Greek historians were co- 
temporaries. Herodotus died 413 B.C. ; Thucydides, 391 
B. C. ; and Xenophon was about twenty years younger than 
Thucydides. Herodotus writes the joint history of the 
Greeks and Persians, from the time of Cyrus to the battles 
of Plataea and Mycale. He treats incidentally likewise of 
the Egyptians, Assyrians, Medes, and Lydians. His vera- 
city is to be depended on in all matters that fell under his 
own observation ; but he admits too easily the jeports of 
others, and is in general fond of the marvellous. His style 
is pure, and he has a copious elocution. 

2. Thucydides, himself an able general, has written with- 
great ability, the history of the first twenty-one years of 
the Peloponnesian war ; introducing it with a short narrative 
of the preceding periods of the history of Greece. He is 
justly esteemed for his fidelity and candour. His style is a 
contrast to the full and flowing period of Herodotus, pos- 
sessing a sententious brevity, which is at once lively and 
energetic. The history of the remaining six years of the 
war of Peloponnesus was written by Theopompus and Xen- 
ophon. 

3. Xenophon commanded the Greek army in the service 
of Cyrus the younger, in his culpable enterprize against his 
brother Artaxerxes, (See Sect. XIII. § 6.) After the failure 
of this enterprize, Xenophon directed that astonishing re~ 
treat from Babylon to the Euxine, of which he has given 
an interesting and faithful narrative. He wrote likewise the 
Cyropedia, or the history of the elder Cyrus, which is be- 
lieved to be rather an imaginary delineation of an accom- 
jjlished prince than a real narration. He continued the 
liistory of Thucydides, and has left two excellent political 
sracts on the constitutions of Lacedsmon and Athens. His 
style is simple and energetic, familiar, unadorned, and free 
i'vom ail affectation. 

4. Greece, in her decline, produced some historians of 
great eminence. Polybius, a native of Megalopolis, wrote 
forty books of the Roman and Greek history during his own 
age ; that is, from the beginning of the second Punic war to 
She reduction of Macedonia into a Roman province ; but of 
this great work only the first five books are entire, with an 
epitome of the following twelve. He merits less the praise 
of eloquepce and purity than of authentic information, and 
most judicious reflection. 



CT. 23. ANCIENT HISTORY. ly'/ 

5. Diodorus Siciilus flourished in the time of Augustus,, 
and composed, in forty books, a general history of the world 
under the title of Bibliotheca Historica. No more remain 
than hfteen books ; of which the lirst five treat of the fabu- 
lous periods, and the history of the Egyptians, Assyrians, 
Persians, Greeks, &c. prior to the Trojan war. The next 
five are wanting. The remainder brings down the history 
from the expedition of Xerxes into Greece till after the 
death of Alexander the Great. He is taxed with chronolo- 
gical inaccuracy in the earlier parts of his work ; but the au- 
thenticity and correctness of the latter periods are unim- 
peached. 

6. Dionysius of Hahcarnassus, eminent both as a histori- 
an and rhetorician, flourished in the age of xiugustus. His 
Roman Antiquities contain much valuable information, 
though his work is too much tinctured with the spirit of 
systematizing. 

7. Plutarch, a native of Cheronea in Boeotin, flourished 
in the reign of Nero. His lives of Illustrious Men is one of 
the most valuable of the literary works of the ancients ; in- 
troducing us to an acquaintance with the private character 
and manners of those eminent persons whose public achieve- 
ments are recorded by professed historians. His morality is 
excellent ; his style, though not eloquent, clear and ener- 
getic. 

8. Arrian wrote in the reign of Adrian, seven books of the 
wars of Alexander, with great judgment and fidelity; his 
narrative being composed on the authority of Aristobulus 
and Ptolemy, two of Alexander's principal officers. His 
style is unadorned, but chaste, perspicuous, and manly. 



XXIII. 

OF THE GREEK PHILOSOPHERS. 

i. After the time of Homer and Hesiod, the increasiifg 
relish for poetical composition gave rise to a set of men 
termed Rhapsodists, Avhose employment was ta recite at rhe 
games and festivals the composition of the older poets, and 
to comment on their merits and explain their doctrines. 
Some of these, founding schools of instruction, were dignifi- 
ed by their pupils with the epithet of Sophists, or teachers of 
wisdom. 

2. The most ancient school of philosophy was that foun^- 

6* 



i 



•< 



63 ANCIENT HISTORY. PART r. 

ed by Tliales, 640 B.C. and termed the Ionic. Thales is cel- 
ebrated for his knowledge both in geometry and astronomy. 
His metaphysical doctrines are but impcrlectly known. He 
tauglit the belief of a first Cause, and an over-ruling Provi 
dence ; but supposed the Divinity to animate the universe 
as the soul does the body. The moral doctrines of the lo 
nic school were pure and rational. The most eminent o 
the disciples of Thales were Anaximander and Anaxogoras. 

3. Soon after the Ionic, arose the Italian sect, founded by 
Pythagoras, who was born about 586 B. C. He is supposed 
to have derived much of his knowledge from Egypt ; and 
he had like the Egyptian priests, a public doctrine for the 
people, and a private for his disciples : the former a good 
system of morals, the latter probably unintelligible mystery. 
His notions of the divinity were akin to tliose of Thales ; 
but he believed in the eternity of the universe, and its coex- 
istence with the Deity. He taught the transmigration of 
the soul through diiferent bodies. His disciples lived in 
common ; they abstained rigorously from the tlesh of ;uii- 
uials ; they held music in high estimation, as a corrective of 
the pasbions. Pythagoras believed the earth to be a sphere, 
the planets to be inhabited, and tlic tixcd stars to bo the suns 
imd centres of other systems. His most eminent followers 
were Empedocles, Epicharmus, Ocellus Lucanus, Timaeus, J 
Archytj's. * 

4. The Eleatic sect was founded by Xenophanes, about 
TiOO B. C. Its chief supporters were Parmenides, Zeno, and 
i^eucippus, citizens of Kloa. The metaphysical notions of 
this sect were utterly unintelligible. They maintained, that 
ihin^-^ had neither beginning, end, nor any change ; and that 
.'Ul the changes we perceive are in our own senses. Yet 
Leucippus taught the doctrine of atoms, from whence he 
supposed all material substances to be formed. Of this sect 
•vere Democritus and Hernclitus. 

5. The Socratic school arose from the Ionic. Socrates 
•lied 401 B. C. the wisest, the most virtuous of the Greeks. 
He exploded the tutile logic of the Sophists, which consisted 
of a set of general arguments applicable to all manner of 
questions, and by which they could, with an appearance of 
piausibiht}', maintain either side of any proposition^ So- 
crates always brought his antagonist to particulars ; begin- 
ning with a simple and undeniable position, which being 
granted, another followed equally vaideniable, till the dispu- 
tant was conducted step by step, by his own concessions, to 
that side of the question on which lay the truth. His rivals A 
*<jst all credit as yihilosophers, but had influence to procure ■ 



SECT. 23. ANCIENT HISTORY. 59 

the destruction of the man who had exposed them. The 
doctrines of Socrates are to be learned from Plato and Xen- 
ophon. He'taught the belief of '^a first cause, whose be- 
neficence is equal to his power, the Creator and Ruler of the 
Universe. He inculcated the moral agency of man, the im- 
mortality of the soul, and a future state of reward and pun- 
ishment. He exploded the Polytheistic superstitions of his 
country, and thence became the victim of an accusation of 
impiety. (See Section XIII. § 5.) 

6. The morality of Socrates was successfully cultivated 
by the Cyrenaic ^ect, but was pushed the length of extrava- 
gance by the Cynics. Virtue in their opinion, consisted in 
renouncing all the conveniences of life. They clothed 
themselves in rags, slept and eat in the streets, or wandered 
about the country with a stick and a knapsack. They con- 
demned all knowledge as useless. They associated impu- 
dence with ignorance, and indulged themselves in scurrility 
and invective without restraint. 

7. The Megarean sect was the happy inventor of logical 
syllogism, or the art of quibbling. 

8. The Academic sect had Plato for iis founder ; a philo- 
sopher whose doctrines have had a mor^ extensive empire 
over the minds of mankind than those of any other among the 
ancients. This is in part owing to their intrinsic merit, and in 
part to the eloquence with which they have been propound- 
ed. Plato had the most sublime ideas of the Divinity and 
his attributes. He taught that the human soul was a portion 
of the Divinity, and that this alUance with the eternal mind 
might be improved into actual intercourse with the Supreme 
Being, by abstracting the soul trom all the corruptions it de- 
rives from the body ; a doctrine highly tiattering to the 
pride of man, and generating that mystical enthusiasm which 
has the most powerful empire over a warm imagination. 

9. The Platonic philosophy found its chief opponents in 
four remarkable sects, the Peripatetic, the Sceptic, the Stc- 

and the Epicurean.^ 

10. Aristotle, the founder of the Peripatetic sect, was the 
tutor of Alexander the Great, and established his school in 
the Lyceum at Athens ; a philosopher, whose tenets have 
found more zealous partizans, and more rancorous oppo- 
nents, than those of any other. His Metaphysics, from the 
sententious brevity of his expression, are extremely obscure, 
and have given rise to numberless commentaries. The best 
analysis of his logic is given by Dr. Reid, in Lord Kames' 
Sketches of the History of Man. His physical works are 
the result of great observation and acquaintance with nature; 



60 ANCIENT HISTORY. PART !, 

and his critical writings, as his Poetics and Art of Rhetoric, 
display both taste and judgment. It is the latter works that 
will ever continue to be most valued. The peculiar passion 
of Aristotle was that of classifying, arranging, and combining 
the objects of his knowledge, so as to reduce all to a few 
principles ; a dangerous propensity in philosophy, and re- 
pressive of improvement in science. 

11. The Sceptical sect w^as founded by Pyrrho. They 
formed no S3^stems of their own, but endeavoured to weak- 
en the foundations of those of all others. They inculcated 
universal doubt as the only true wisdom. There was, in 
their opinion, no essential diiference between vice and virtue, 
farther than as human compact had discriminated them. — 
Tranquillity of mind they supposed to be the state of the 
greatest happiness, and this w^^s to be attained by absolute 
indifference to all dogmas or opinions. 

12. The Stoics proposing to themselves the same end, 
tranquillity of mind, took a nobler path to arrive at it. They 
endeavoured to raise themselves above all the passions and 
feelings of humanit}^. They believed all nature, and God 
himself the soul of the universe, to be regulated by hxed and 
immutable laws. The human soul being a portion of the Di- 
vinity, man cannot complain of being actuated by that ne- 
cessity which actuates the Divinity himself. His pains and 
his pleasures are determined by the same laws which deter- 
mine his existence. Virtue consists in accommodating the 
disposition of the mind to the immut'able laws of nature ; 
vice in opposing those laws : vice therefore is folly, and vir- 
tue the only true wisdom. A beautiful picture of the Stoical 
philosophy is found in the Enchiridion of Epictetus, and in 
the meditations of M. Aurelius Antoninus. 

13. Epicurus taught that man's supreme happiness consist- 
ed in pleasure. He himself limited the term so as, to make 
it mean only the practice of virtue. But if pleasure is allowed 
to be the object, every man will draw it from those sources 
which he finds can best supply it. It might have been 
the pleasure of Epicurus to be chaste and temperate. We 
are told it was so ; but others find their pleasure in intemper- 
ance and luxury ; and such was the taste of his principal fol- 
lowers. Epicurus held that the Deity was indifferent to all 
the actions of man. They therefore had no other counsel- 
lor than their own conscience, and no other guide than the 
instinctive desire of their own happiness. 

14. The Greek philosophy, on the whole,"*afford? little else 
than a pi'.ture of the imbecihty and caprice of the human 
mind. Us teachers, instead of experiment and observatioo^ 



i 



IIECT. 24. ANCIENT HISTORY. C^ 

satisfied themselves with constructing theories ; and these^ 
wanting fact for their basis, have only served to perplex the 
understanding, and retard equally the advancement of sound 
morality and the progress of useful knowleclge. 



^ 



XXIV. 

THE HISTORY OF ROME. 

1. In the delineation of ancient history, Rome, after tlie 
conquest of Greece, becomes the leading object of attention ; 
and the history of this empire, in its progress to universal do- 
minion, and afterwards in its decline and fall, involves a col- 
lateral account of all the otfeer nations of antiquity which in 
those periods are deserviftgrof our consideration. 

2. Although we cannot "conjecture with certainty as to the 
aera when Italy was first peopled, we have every reason to 
believe that it was inhabited by a refined and cultivated na- 
tion many ages before the Roman name was known. These 
were the Etruscans, of whom there exist at this day monu- 
ments in the fine arts, which prove them to have been a splen- 
did, luxurious, and highl}' polished people. Their alphabet 
resembling the Phoenician, disposes us to believe them of 
eastern origin. The Roman historians mention them as a 
powerful and opulent nation long before the origin of Rome, 
Tuscorum ante Romanum imperium later terra marique opes 
paiuere, Lib. v. 33. ; and Dionysius of Halicarnassus dedu- 
ces most of the religious rites of the Romans from Etruria. 

3. The rest of Italy was divided among a number of inde- 
pendent tribes or nations, comparatively in a rude and uncul- 
tivated state ; Umbrians, Ligurians, Sabines, Veintes, Lat- 
ins, jEqui, Volsci, &c. Latium, a territory of fifty miles in 
length and sixteen in breadth, contained forty-seven inde- 
pendent cities or states. 

4. The origin of the city and state of Rome is involved in 
great uncertainty. Dionysius supposes two cities of that 
name to have existed, and to have perished before the fouu' 
dation of the city built by Romulus. The vulgar account 
of the latter is, that it was founded 752 B. C. by a troop of 
shepherds or banditti, who peopled their new city by carry- 
ing off the wives and -daughters of their neighbours the Sa- 
bines. 

5. The great outlines of the first constitution of the Ro- 
man government, though generally attributed to the politic- 



62 ANCIENT HISTORY. PART I. 

al abilities of Romulus, seem to have a natural foundation in 
the usages of barbarous nations. Other institutions bear the 
traces of political skill and positive enactment. 

6. Romulus is said to have divided his people into three 
tribes, and each tribe into ten curiee. The lands he distrib- 
uted mto three portions ; one tor the support of the govern- 
ment, another for the maintenance of religion, and the third 
he divided into equal portions of two acres to each Roman 
citizen. He instituted a senate of 100 members, (afterwards 
increased to 200,) who deliberated on and prepared all pub- 
lic measures for the assembly of the people, in whom'was 
rested the right of determination. The Patrician families 
were the descendants of those centum, patres. 

7. The king had the nomination of the senators, the privi- 
lege of assembling the people, and a right of appeal in all | 
questions of importance. Heliad fhe command of the ar- 
my, and the office of Poniif^xJ'shixinius. He hrd. as a 
guard, twelve lictors, and a troop of horsemen named Cele- 
res or Equttes, afterwards the distinct order of Roman 
knights. These regulations are of positive institution : oth- 
ers arose naturally from the state of society. i 

8. The patria potestas is of the latter nature, being com- 
men to all barbarous tribes. — The limitation of all arts to the 
slaves arose from the constant employment of the citizens 
in warfare or in agri<:ulture, 

9. The connexion of patron and client w^s an admirable 
institution, which at once united the citizens, and maintained 
an useful subordination. 

10. The Sabines were the most formidable enemy of the 
early Romans ; and a wise policy united tor awhile the two 
hations into one state. After the death of Romulus, who 
reigned thirty seven years, Numa, a Sabine, was elected 
king. His disposition was pious and pacitic,. and he endeav- 
oured to give his people the same character. He pretended 
to divine inspiration, in order to give the greater authority 
to his laws, w^hieh in themselves were excellent. He multi- 
plied the national gods, built temples, and instituted different 
classes of priests, Flomines, Salii^ &c.'and a variety of reli- 
gious ceremonies. The Flamines officiated each in the ser- 
vice of a particulnr deity ; the Salii guarded the sacred buck- 
lers .; the Vestals cherished the sacred tire ; the Augurs and 
Aruspices divined future events from the flight of birds, and 
the entrails of victims. The temple of Janus was open in 
war, and shut during peace. — Numa reformed the kdendar, 
regulating the year at twelve lunar months, and distinguish- 
ed the da;is for civil occupation (Fasti) from those dedicated 



SECT. 24. ANCIENT HISTORY, 60 

to religious rest (^J^'efasti.y Agriculture was lawful on the 
latter, as a duty of religion. Numa reigned forty-three years. 

11. Tulius Hostihus, the third king of Rome, of warhke 
disposition, subdued the Albans, Fidenates, and other neigh- 
bouring states. The Sabines, now disunited from the Ro- 
mans, were among the most powerful of their enemies. — 
Tulius reigned thirty-three years. 

12. Anciis Martius, the grandson of Numa, was elected 
king on the death of Tulius. He inherited the piety and 
virtues of his grandfather, and joined to these the talents of 
a warrior. He increased the population of Rome, by na- 
turalizing some of the conquered states ; enlarged and fortifi- 
ed the city, and built the port of Ostia at the mouth of the 
Tiber. He reigned gloriously twenty-four years. 

1 3. Tarquinius Priscu9jr%citizen of Corinth, popular from 
his wealth and liberality, ^^p$. elected to the vacant throne. 
He enlarged the senate by tOO new members from the Plebe- 
ian families, Patres minor uni' gentium. This body consisted 
F>ow of 300, at which numbe^Ot remained for some centu- 
ries. Tarquin was victoriou^Pii^vWars, and he adorned and 
improved the city with works of utility and magnificence. — 
Such were the Circus or Hippodrome ; the walls of hewn 
stone ; the Capitol ; the Cloacae, those immense common 
sewers, which lead to the belief that the new Rome had been 
built on the ruins of an ancient city of greater magnitude. 
Tarquinius was assassinated in the thirty -eighth year of his 
reign.^w 

14. Servius Tullius, who had married the daughter of 
Tarquinius, secured by his own address, and the intrigues 
of his mother-in-law, his election to the vacant throne. He 
courted popularit}^ by acts of munificence ; discharging the 
debts of the poor, dividing among the citizens his patrimoni- 
al lands, improving the city with useful edifices, and extend- 
ing its boundaries. The new arrangement which he intro- 
duced in the division of the Roman citizens, is a proof of 
much political ability, and merits attention, as on it depended 
majiy of the revolutions of the republic. 

1 5. From the time that the Romans had admitted the Al- 
bans and Sabines to the rights of citizens, the Urban and 
Rustic tribes were composed of those three nations. Each 
tribe being divided into ten cwr/ce, and every curiae having 
an equal vote in the Comitia^ as each individual had in his 
tribe, all questions were decided by the majority of suflrages. 
There was no pre-eminence between the curicf, and the or 
der in which they gavc^their votes was determined by lot, 
"^^m was a reasonable constitution, so long as the fortunes of 



'1 



ly^i' 






fc4 ANCIENT HISTORV'. FART !.■ , 

the citizens were nearly on a par ; but, when riches came to 
be unequally divided, it Avas obvious that much inconven- 
ience must have arisen from this equal partition of power, 
as the rich could easily, by bribery, command the suffrages 
of the poor. Besides all the taxes had hitherto been levied 
by the head, without any regard to the inequality of fortunes. 
These obvious defects furnished to Servius a just pretext for 
an entire change of system. His plan was, to remove the i 
poorer citizens from all share of the government ; while the 
burdens attending its support should fall solely on the rich. 

16. All the citizens were required, under a heavy penalty, 
to declare upon oath their names, dwellings, number of their 
children, and amount of their fortune. After this numera- 
tion or census, Servius divided the whole citizens, without 
distinction, into four tribes, named, from the quarters where 
they dwelt, the Palatine^ Suburraii, Collatine, and Esquilinc. 
Besides this local division, Servius distributed the whole peo- 
ple into six classes, and each class into several centuries or 
portions of citizens, so called, not as actually consisting of 
an hundred, but as being obliged to furnish and maintain 100 
men in time of war. In the first class, which consisted of 
the richest citizens, or those who were worth at least 100 mi- 
;icB,* there was no less than ninety- eight centuries. In the 
second class (those worth 75 mimi) there were twenty-two 
centuries. In the third, (those worth 50 mince) were twenty 
centuries. In the fourth (those worth 25 mince) twenty- 
two centuries. In the fifth (those worth 12 7)imcE)'n;hirty 
centuries. The sixth the most numerous of the whole, 
comprehending all the poorer citizens, furnished only one 
century. Thus the whole Roman people were divided into 
193 centuries, or portions of citizens, so called, as furnishing 
each an hundred soldiers. The sixth class was declared ex- 
empt from all taxes. The other classes, according to the 
number of centuries of which they consisted, were rated for 
the public burdens at so much for each century. 

17. The poor had no reason to complain of this arrange- 
ment ; but someLhing was wanting to compensate the rich 
for the burdens to which they were subjected. For this pur- 
pose Serv^ius enacted, that henceforth the Comitia should 
give their votes by centuries ; the first class, consisting of 
ninety-eight centuries, always voting first. Thus, although 
the whole people were called to the Comitia, and all seemed 
to have an equal suffrage, yet, in reality, the richer classes 
determined every question, the suffrage of the poor being 



*AbQut L. 300 Sterling. 



SECT. 24. AXCIENT HISTORY. ^^^; 

merely nominal : for as the whole people formed 193 centu- 
ries, and the iirst and second classes contained 120of these^ 
if they were unanimous, which generally happened inques- 
itons of importance, a majority was secured. Thus, in the 
Comitia Centuriata^ in which the chief magistrates were 
elected, peace and war decreed, and ail other important bu- 
siness discussed, the richer classes of the citizens had the 
sole authority, the votes of the poor being of no avail. And 
such was the ingenuity of this policy, that all were pleased 
with it : the rich paid their taxes with cheerfulness as the 
price of their power ; and the poor gladly exchanged author- 
ity for immunities. The census performed every five years, 
was closed by a lustrum, or expiatory sacrifice ; and hence 
that period of time was called a lustrum. 

18. Servius was assassinated, after a reign of forty-four 
years, by his infamous daughter TuUia, married to Tarquini- 
us, the grandson of Priscus, who thus paved theway for his 
own elevation to the throne. The government of Tarquin, 
surnamed the Proud,was systematically tyrannical. He ingra- 
tiated himself with the lower orders to abase by their means 
the power of the higher ; but insolent, rapacious, and cruel, 
he finally disgusted all ranks of his subjects. A rape, com- 
mitted by his son Sextus on Lucretia, the wife of Collatinus, 
who, unable to survive her dishonour, stabbed herself in 
presence of her husband and kindred, roused their vengeance, 
and procured, by their influence with their countrymen, 
the expulsion of the tyrant, and the utter abolition of the 
regal dignity at Rome, 609 B. C. ^ . 

19. Reflections on the Government and State of RomeUu' 
ring the period of the Kings. — The whole structure of the 
constitution of the Romans under the monarchy has been by 
most authors erroneously attributed exclusively to the abili- 

i ties of Romulus, a youth of eighteen, the leader of a troop of 
shepherds or banditti. This chimerical idea we owe to Di- 
onysius of Halicarnassus. The truth is, the Roman govern- 
nient, like almost every other, was the gradual result of cir- 
cumstances ; the fruit of time, and of political emergency. 

20. The constitution of the Roman senate has occasioned 
considerable research, and is not free from obscurity. It is 
probable that the kings had the sole right of naming the sena- 
tors, that the consuls succeeded them in this right, and after- 
wards, when these magistrates found too much occupation 
from the frequent wars in which the state was engaged, that 
privilege devolved on the censors. The senators were at. 
first always chosen from the body of the Patricians, but af- 
terwards the Plebeians acquired »n equal title to that digni- 



t>6 ANCIENT HISTORY. PART I, 

ty. In the C",r]y periods of tlie republic, the people could 
ilot be assembled but by the senate's authority; nor were 
the plebiscita of any weight till confirmed by their decree. I 
Hence the early constitution of the republic was rather aris- 
tocratical than democratical. From this extensive power of 
the senate, the first diminution was made, by the creation of 
the Tribunes of the people ; and other retrenchments suc- 
cessively took place, till the people acquired at length the 
predominant power in the state. Yet the senate, even after 
every usurpation on their authority, continued to have, in 
many points, a su])remacy. They regulated all matters re- 
garding religion ; they had the custody of the public treas- 
ure ; they superintended the conduct of all magistrates ; they •. 
gave audience to ambassadors, decided on the fate of van- ■ 
ijuished nations, disposed of the governments of the provin- 
ces, and took cognizance, by ap})eal, in all crimes against the 
state. In great emergencies they appointed a Dictator, with 
absolute authority. 

CI. At the period of thc^iibolition of the regal govern- 
ment, the territory of the lioinaris was extremely limited. 
The only use they made of their victories was to naturalize 
the inhabitants of some of the conquered states, and so in- 
crease their popuhition. Thus their strength being always 
fiuperior to their enterprises, they laid a solid foundation for 
the future extension of their empire. 

22. In the accounts given by historians of the strength of 
the armies, both of the Romans in those early times, aud of 
the neighbouring states their enemies, we have every reason 
to "believe there is much exaggeration. The territories from 
w hich those armies were furnished, were incapable of sup- 
plying them. 

23. in the continual wars in which the republic was engag- 
ed, the Romans were most commonly the aggressors. The 
c-auses of this seem to have been the ambition of the con- 
suls to distinguish their short administration by some splen- 
did enterprise, and the wish of the senate to give the people 
occupation, to prevent intestine disquiets. 

24. The regal government subsisted 214 years, and ir. 
that time only seven kings reigned, several of whom died a 
violent death. These circumstances throw doubt on the au- 
thenticity of this period of the R-oman history. It is allow- 
ed that, for the hve first centuries after the building of Rome, 
there w^ere no historians. The first is Fabius Pictor, who 
lived during the second Punic war. Livy sa3^s that valmos* 
all the ancient records were destroyed when Ronoe was ta 
ften by the Guuls. 



S^srCT. -25., AJfCIEXT EISTORT. G"^ 

XXV. 

ROME UNDER THE CONSULS. 



^ 



1. The regal government being abolished, it was agreed 
to conimit the supreme authority to two magistrates, who 
should be annually elected by the people from the Fatrieian 
order. To these they gave the name of Consules ; " a mo- 
" dest title, (says Vertot,) which gave to understand that they 
•' were rather the counsellors of the republic than its sove- 
" reigns ; and that the only point they ought to have in view 
'' was its preservation and glory." But, in fact, their author- 
ity differed scarcely in any thing from that of the kings. — ■ 
They had the supreme administration of justice, the dispo- 
sal of the public money, the power of convoking the senate, 
and assembling the people, raising armies, naming all the offi- 
cers, and the right of making peace and war. The only dif- 
ference was, that their authority was limited to a year, 

2. The lirst consuls were Brutus and Collatinus, the hus- 
band of Lucretia. Tarquin was at this time in Etruria, 
where he got two of the most powerful cities, Veii and 
Tarquinii, to espouse his cause. He had hkewise his parti- 
sans at Rome ; and a plot was formed to open the gates to 
receive him. It was detected ; and Brutus had the mortiti- 
eation to find his two sons in the number of the conspirators. 
He condemned them to be beheaded in his presence ; Exuit 
patrem ut consulein ogeret ; orhusque vivere, quam piibiicce 
vindictce decsse maiuit. Val. Max. 

3. The consul Valerius, successful in an cngDgement Avith 
ihe exiled Tarquiu, was the first Roman who enjoyed thr 
splendid reward of a triumph. Arrogant from his recen. 
honours, his popularity- began to decline ; and in the view oi 
recovering ii, he proposed the lav/, teamed from him the 
Valeriaa, which •• permitted any citizen who had been con- 
demned to death by a magistrate, or even to banishment 

- or sco-'.rginsff io appeal to the people, and required their 
-' consent previously io the execution of the sentence." 
This law gave the lirst blow to the aristocracy, in the con- 
stitution of the Roman republic. 

4. For thirteen your' auer the expulsion of Tarquin, the 
Romans were iuvro^lved in continual wars on his account. Of 
these the most remarka1»re was that with the Etrurians undc^ 
Forsenna ; a war fertile in exploits of romantic heroism. 

6, Soon after this period began those domestic disorders, 
which continued long io embroil the republic. Great com- 
plaints had arisen among the poorer classes of the citizens. 



QQ Alv'CIENT HISTOnV. PART I.. 

both on account of the inequality of propi^fy from the par- 
tial distribution of the conquered lands, which the higher 
ranks generally contrived to engross to themselves, and from 
the harsh policy by which it was in the power of creditors 
to reduce to a state of slavery their insolvent debtors. Ap 
-here was no legal restraint on usury, the poor, when once 
reduced to the necessity of contracting debts, were left en- 
tirely at the mercy of their creditors. These grievances, 
felt in common l)y a large ])roportion of the citizens, excited 
much discontent, which, from com})laints long disregarded, 
grew at length into a spirit of determined resistance. The 
wars required new levies ; and the plebeians positively refus- 
ed to enrol their names, imless the senate should put an end 
(.0 their oppression, by decreeing at once an abolition of all 
the debts due by the poor to the rich. The emergency was 
critical, as tlie enemy was at the gates of Rome. The con- 
suls found their authority of no avail ; for the Valerian law 
iiad given any citizen condemned by them a right of appeal 
to the people. An extraordinary measure was necessary, 
and a Dictator was created for the tirst time ; a magistrate 
who, for the period of six months, was invested with abso- 
lute and unlimited authority'. Lartius, nominated to this high 
office, armed the twenty-four lictors with axes, summoned 
I he whole people to the Comitia, and calling over the names, 
under the penalty of death to any citizen who should dare to 
murmur, enrolled all such as he judged most fit for the ser- 
vice of their country. This expedient became hencefor- 
ward a frequent and certain resource in all seasons of public 
danger. 

C. The death of Tarquin removed one check against the 
ijTanny of the higher over the lower orders ; for the latter 
had hitherto kept alive a salutary apprehension, that, in case 
of extreme oppression, they would be under the necessity of 
calling back their king. When this fear was at nn end, the 
domineering spirit of the Patricians, exceeding every bound 
^)oth of good policy and humanity, drove the people at length 
:o deeds of mutiny and rebellion. An alarm from the enemy 
gave full weight to their power, and made the chief magis- 
trates of the state solemnly engage their honour to procure 
a redress of their grievances, as soon as the public danger 
was at an end. The promise, either from a failure of will 
or of power, was not filfilled, and this violation of futh 
drove the people at length to extremities. Bound by their 
military oath not to desert their standards, they carried them 
along with them ; and the whole army, in military array, 
'vithdrew from Rome, and deliberately encamped on the 



SECT. 25. \J ANCIENT HISTORV, <>'-^ 

MoQS Sacer, at three miles distance from the city ; sind here 
they were soon joined by the greatest part of the people. 
This resolute procedure had its desired effect. The senate 
deputed ten persons, the most respectable of their order, 
with plenary powers : and these, seeing no medium of com- 
promise, granted to the people all their demands. The debts 
were solemnly abolished ; and for the security of their pri- 
vileges in future, they were allowed the right of choosing 
magistrates of their own order, who should have the power 
of opposing with effect every measure which they should 
judge prejudicial to their interests. These were the Tri- 
bunes of the people, chosen annually ; attirstlive in number, 
and afterwards increased to ten. Without guards or tribu- 
nal, and having no seat in the senate house, they had yet the 
power, by a single veto^ to suspend or annul the decrees of 
the senate and the sentences of the consuls. Their persons 
were declared sacred, but their authority was confined to the 
limits of a mile ft-om the city. The tribunes demanded and 
obtained two magistrates to assist them, who were termed 
^.diles, from the charge committed to them of the buildings 
of the city. 

7. From this aera (260 j^ears from the foundation of 
Rome,) we date the commencement of the popular constitu- 
tion of the Roman republic ; a change operated by the un- 
wise policy of the patricians themselves, who, by yielding to 
just complaints, and humanely redressing flagrant abuses, 
might have easily anticipated ever}'^ ground of dissatisfaction. 
The first wish of the people was not power, but relief from 
tyranny and oppression, and had this been readily granted 
them, if not by aboli.shiiig the debts, at least by repressing 
enormous usury, and putting an end to the inhuman right of 
corporal punishment and the bondage of debtors, the people 
would have cheerfully returned to order and submission, and 
the Roman constitution have long remained what we have 
seen it was at the commencement of the consular govern- 
ment, aristocratical. But the plebeians now obtaining ma- 
gistrates of their own order with those high powers, we shall 
see it become the object of these magistrates to increase 
their authority by continual demands and bold encroach- 
ments. The people, regarding them as the champions of 
their rights, are delighted to find themselves gradually ap- 
proaching to a level with the higher order ; and, no long- 
er bounding their desires to ease and security, are soon 
equally influenced by ambition as their superiors. While 
this' people, borne down by injustice, seek no more than the 
3:jedress of reul grievances, we sympathize with their fgei^- 

7* 



70 ANCIENT HISTORY. "^ PART I. 

ings, and applaud their spirited exertions ; but compassing at 
length the end they wished, attaining ease and security, nay, 
power, which they had neither sought nor expected ; when 
we see them, after this, increasing in their demands, assuming 
that arrogance they justly blamed in their superiors, goaded 
on by the ambition of their leaders to tyrannise in their turn ; 
we view with proper discrimination the love of liberty and 
its extreme licentiousness ; and treat with just detestation 
the authors of those pernicious measures which embroiled 
the state in endless faction, and paved the way for the total 
loss of that liberty, of which this deluded people knew not 
the value, when they actually possessed it. 



XXVI. 

THE LAW OF VOLERO. 

1: The disorders of the commonwealth, appeased by the 
creation of the Tribunes, were but for a time suspended. 
It was necessary that the popular magistrates should make 
an experiment of their powers. In an assembly of the peo- 
ple, one of the consuls, interrupted by a tribune, rashly said, 
that had the tribunes called that assembly, he would not 
have interrupted them. This was a concession on the part 
of the consuls, that the tribunes had the power of assembling 
the Comitia, which from that moment they assumed as their 
ucknov/ledged right. It was a consequence of this right, 
that the affairs of the commonwealth should be agitated in 
those meetings, equally as in the assemblies held in virtue of 
a consular summons, or senatorial decree, and thus there 
were, in a manner, two distinct legislative powers established 
»n the republic. 

2. The trial of Coriolanus for inconsiderately proposing 
the abolition of the Tribunate, an offence interpreted to be 
treason against the state, threw an additional weight into the 
scale of the people. The proposal of an Agrarian law, for 
the division of the lands acquired by recent conquests, re- 
sumed at intervals, though never carried into execution, in- 
flamed the passions of the rival orders. 

3. Pubiius Volero, formerly a centurion, and a man dis- 
tinguished for his military services, had, in the new levies, 
been ranked as a common soldier. Complaining of this un- 
merited degredation, he refused his services in that capacity; 
and. the consulB having condemned him to corporal punish- 



SECT. 27. ^\^ ANCIENT HISTORY. 71 

me«t, he appealed from their sentence to the people. The 
contest lasted till the annual term of elections, when Volero 
himself was chosen a tribune of the people. He had an am- 
ple revenge, by procuring the enactment of a most important 
law. The Comitia, by centurie§ and by curiae, could not be 
called but in virtue, of a decree of'the senate, after consult- 
ing the auspices ; -and in those comlti% the tribunes had hith- 
erto been elected, and (he most important public affairs dis- 
cussed. It was decreed by the law of Volero, that the election 
of the tribunes should be made, and the chief public business 
henceforward discussed, in the comitia held by tribes, which 
were unfettered by any of those restraints. From this peri- 
od, the supreme authority in the Roman republic may be 
considered as having passed ceeiipletely from the higher or- 
der into the hands of the people. The Roman constitution 
was now plainly a democracy, 471 B. C. 



XXVII. 

THlg: DECEMVIRATE. 

1. The Romans had, till this period, no body of civil 
laws. Under the.regal government the kings alone adminis- 
tered justice ; the consuls succeeded them in this high pre- 
rogative ; and thus possessed \vithout control the absolute 
command of the fortunes and civil rights of all the citizens. 
To remedy this great defect, Terentillus, a tribune, proposed 
the nomination of ten commissioners, to frame and digest a 
code of laws for the explanation and security of the rights 
of all orders of the state. A measure so equitable ought to 
have met with no opposition. It was, however, strenuously 
though ineffectually opposed by the patricians, who, by a 
fruitless contest, only exposed their own weakness. The 
decemviri were chosen ; but the election being made in the 
Comitia by centuries, the consul Appius Claudius, with his 
colleague, were at the head of this important commission. 
The laws were framed, those celebrated statutes known by 
the name of the Twelve Tables, which are the basis of the 
great structure of Roman jurisprudence, 451 B. C. 

2. An acquaintance with these ancient laws is therefore of 
importaace. Even in the most flourishing times of tJie re- 
public, they continued to be of the highest authority. They 
have the enconium of Cicero himself ; and we learn froni 
him, that to coRunit these laws to memory was an essential 



72 ANCIENT HISTORY. PART 

part of a liberal education. From the twelve tables the ju- 
risconsiilti composed a system of judicial torms, for the re- 
gulation of the different tribunals. The number of the laws 
was likewise from time to time increased by the Scnatus- 
consulta and Plehiscita. 

3. The decemvirs were invested with all the powers of 
government, for the consulate had ceased on their creation. 
Each decemvir by turn presided for a day, and had the sove* 
reign authority, with its insignia, the fasces. The nine others 
officiated solely as judges in the determination of law'-suit^, 
and the correction of abuses. An abuse, however, of the 
most flagrant nature committed by the chief of their own 
number, v/as destined speedily to bring their office to its ter- 
mination. 

4. Appius Claudius, inflamed by lawless passion for the 
young Virginia, the betrothed spouse of Icilius, formerly a 
tribune of the people, employed a profligate dependant to 
claim the maiden as his own property, on the false pretence 
of her being the daughter of one of his female slaves. The 
claim was made to the decemvir himself in judgment, who 
pronounced an infamous decree, which tore from her family 
this helpless victim, and put her into the hands of his own 
jninion. Her lather, to save the honour of his child, plung- 
ed a dagger into her breast ; and the people, witnesses of this 
shocking scene, would have massacred Appius on the spot, 
had he not found means to escape amidst the tumult. Their 
vengeance, however, was satiated by the instant abolition of 
thishated magistracy, and by the death of Appius, who chose 
by his own hand to prevent the stoke of the executioner. 
The decemvirate had subsisted for three years. The con- 
suls were now restored, together with the tribunes of the 
people, 449 J^. C 



XXVIII. 

INCREASE OF THE POPULAR POWER. 

4. -The scale of the people was daily acquiring weight, 
at the expense of that of the highest order. Two barriers, 
however, £all separated the patricians and plebeians ; the 
one, a law which prevented the intermarriage, and the other, 
the constitutional limitation of all the higher offices to the 
order of the patricians. It was now only necessary to re- 
move these restraints, an4 the patricians and plebeians were 



oSCT. 28. ANCIENT HISTORY. vG 

on a footing of perfect equality. The first, after a long but 
fruitless contest, was at length agreed to by the senate ; and 
this concession had its usual effect of stimulating the people 
to inflexible perseverance in their struggle for the latter. 
On an emergence of war, the customary device was practis- 
I ed, of refusing to enter the rolls, unless upon the immediate 
enactment of a laAv, which should admit their capacity of 
holding ail the offices of the republic. The senate sought a 
palliative, by the creation of six military tribunes in lieu of 
the consuls, three of whom should be patricians, and three 
plebeians. This measure satisfied the people for a time : the 
consuls, however, were soon restored. 

2. The disorders of the republic, and frequent wars, had 
interrupted the regular survey of the citizens. This was re- 
medied by the creation of a new magistracy. Two officers, 
under the title of Censors, were appointed (437 B.C.) whose 
duty was not only to make the ceiisus every five years, but 
to inspect the morals and re2;ulate the duties of all the citi- 
zens ; an office of dignity equal to its importance, exercised 
in the latter times of the republic, only by consular persons, 
and afterwards annexed to the supreme function of the em- 
perors. 

3. The dissensions between the orders continued with lit- 
tle variation either in their causes or effects. The people 
generally, as the last resource, refused to enrol themselves, 
till overawed by the supreme authority of a dictator. To 
obviate the frequent necessity of this measure, which enforc- 
ed at best an unwilling and compelled obedience, the sen- 
ate had recourse to a wise expedient ; this was, to give re- 
gular pay to the troops. To defray this expense, a mode- 
rate tax was imposed in proportion to the fortunes of the cit- 
izens. From this period the Roman system of war assum- 
ed a new aspect. The senate always found soldiers at com- 
mand ; the army was under its control ; the enterprises of 
the republic were more extensive, and its successes more 
signal and important. Veii, the proud rival of Rome, and 
its equal in extent and population, was taken by Camillus, 
after a siege of ten years, A. U. C..363. The art of war was 
improved, as it now became a profession, instead of an 
occasional occupation. The Romans were, from this cir- 
cumstance, an over match for all their neighbours. Their 
dominion hitherto confined to the territory of a few miles, 
was now rapidly extended. It was impossible but the de- 
tached states of Italy must have given way before a people 
always in arms, and who, by a perseverance alike resolute 
and judicious, were equal to every attempt in which they 
engaged. 



71 ANCIENT HI5T0BV. PART I, 

4. The taking of Veii was succeeded by a war with the 
Gauls. This people, a branch of the great nation of the Cel- 
tae, had opened to themselves a passage through the Alps at 
four different periods, and were at tliis time established in 
the country between those mountains and the Appenines. — 
Under the command ofBrennus, they laidseige to the Etrus- 
can Clusium ; and this people, of no warlike turn them- 
selves solicited the aid of the Romans. The circumstances 
recorded of this war with the Gauls throw over it a cloud of 
fable and romance, The formidable power of Rome is said 
to have been in a single campaign so utterly exhausted, that, 
the Gauls entered the city without resistance, and burnt it to 
the ground, 385 B. C. Though thus overpowered, the Ro- 
mans, in a single engagement, retrieve ajl their losses, and 
in one day's time there is not a Gaul left remaining within 
the Roman territory. 

To the burning of the city by the Gauls, the Roman wri- 
ters attribute the loss of all the records and monuments of 
their early history. 

5. It is singular, that most of the Roman revolutions 
should have owed their origin to women. From this cause 
we have seen spring the abolition of the regal office and the 
decemvirate. From this cause arose the change of the consti- 
tution, by which the plebeians became capable of holding the 
highest offices of the commonwealth. The younger daugh- 
ter of Fabius Ambustus, married to a plebeian, envious of 
the honours of her elder sister, the wife of a patrician, stim- 
^ilated her father to rouse the lov/er order to a resolute pur- 
pose of asserting their equal right v/ith the patricians to all 
the offices and dignities of the state. After much turbulence 
and contest, the tinal issue was the admission of the plebei- 
ans, tir~t to the consulate, and aiterwards to the censorship, 

-rhe praetorship, and priesthood, (A. U. C. 454, and B. C. 
300 ;) a change benelicial in the main, as consolidating 
the strength of the republic, and cutting off the principal 
source of intestine disorder. The factions of the state had 
hitherto confined the growtll of its power, its splendour, and 
prosperity ; tor no state can at once be prosperous and anar- 
chical. We shall now mark the rapid elevation of the Ro- 
man name and empire. 



i 



SECT. 29. ANCIENT IIISTORi'. 



lO 



CONQ.UEST OF ITALY BY THE PcOMA^'S. 

i. The war with the Samnites now began, and was of 
iong continuance ; but its successful termination was speedi- 
ly followed by the reduction of all the states of Italy. ,In 
ihe course of this important war, the Tarentines, the allies of 
the Samnites, sought the aid of Pyrrhus, king of Epirus. one 
of the greatest generals of his age. Pyrrhus landed in Italy 
with 30,000 men, and a train of elephants, 280 B. C. He 
was at first successful, but no longer so thcin till a short ex- 
perience reconciled the Romans to a new mode of war. — 
Sensible at length of the difficulties of his enterprise, and 
dreading a fatal issue, he embraced an invitation from the 
Sicilians to aid them in a war with Carthage. On this pre- 
text, which at least was not dishonourable, Pyrrhus with- 
drew his troops from Italy. In this interval the Romans re- 
duced the Samnites, the Tarentines, and the other aUied 
states to extremity. Pyrrhus returned, and made a last ef- 
fort near Beneventuni. He was totally defeated, lost 26,000 
men, and, abandoning at once all farther views on Ital^ % re- 
turned with precipitation to his own dominions, 274 B. C. 
The hostile states submitted to the victorious power, and 
Rome, 480 years from the foundation of the city, was now 
mistress of all Italy. 

2. The policy observed by the Romans, with respect to the 
conquered nations, was wise and judicious. They removed 
to Rome all the leading men of the principal conquered cit- 
ies, admitting these into the ancient urban and rustic tribes, and 
thus southing the pride of the vanquished, by giving them an 
apparent share in their own domestic government ; while, in 
arranging the constitution of the cities, they filled their ma- 
gistracies Avith illustrious Romans, whose abihties and in- 
tluence were fitted to maintain those new provinces in alle- 
giance to the Roman government. 

3. Sicily had long been considered as the granary of Italy. 
The Carthaginians at this time possessed very considerable 
settlements in the island, and were ambitious of acquiiing 
its entire dominion. An obvious policy led the Romians to 
dispute with them this important acquisition, and gave rise 
to the Punic wars. This leads, by a natural connexion, to 
9- short view of the history of Carthage a»d of Sicily 



;;(J ANCIENT HISTOEV. PART 1. 

XXX. 

HISTORY OF CARTHAGC* 

1. Carthage, according to the most probable accounts, 
was founded by a colony of Tyrians, about seventy years 
before the building of Rome. The colony had the same 
language, the same or nearly similar laws and constitution, 
the same national character with the parent state. The city 
of Carthage was, at the period of the Punic wars, one of the 
most splendid in the universe, and had under its dominion 
300 of the smaller cities of Africa bordering on the Mediter- 
ranean sea. 

2. The constitution of the republic is celebrated by Aris-' 
totle as one of the most perfect of the governments of anti- 
quity ; but we know little more than its general nature from 
ancient writers. Two magistrates named Sii^etes, annually 
chosen, seem to have possessed powers akin to those of the 
Roman consuls : as did the Carthaginian senate to that ol 
the senate of Rome ; with this remarkable difference that, 
in the former, unanimity of opinion was requisite in all 
measures of importance. A divided senate transmitted the 
business to the assembly of the people. A tribunal of 104 
judges took cognizance of military operations and of the 
conduct of their generals. A superior council of live 
seems to have controlled the decisions of the larger tribu- 
nal. Two peculiarities of the Carthaginian policy have 
been censured by Aristotle. One was, that the same per- 
son might hold several employments or offices in the state ; 
the other, that the poor were debarred from all offices of 
trust or importance. But the former of these is frequent- 
ly both expedient and necessary, and the latter seems agree- 
able to the soundest pohcy ; for in offices of trust poverty 
offers too powerful an incitement to deviation from duty. 

3. The first settlements made by the Carthagenians were 
entirely in the way of commerce. Trading to the coast of 
Spain for gold, they built Carthagena and Gades ; and coast- 
ing along the western shore of Africa, they had establish- 
ments for the same purpose as far as the 25th degree of N, 
latitude. The Periphis of Hanno affords a proof of ardent 
enterprise and policy. Desirous of extending a limited ter- 
ritory, they armed against the Mauri tanians, Numidians, and 
all the neighbouring nations ; employing mercenary troops, 
which they levied, not only in Africa, but in Spain, the Gauls, 
and Greece. 

4. The annals of the Carthaginian state ajre but little 



SECT. 31. ANCIENT HISTORV. 77 

known till their wars with the Romans, The hrst of their 
wars mentioned in history is that with the Greek colonies of 
Sicily. Darius courted their alliance when he meditated the 
conquest of Greece, and Xerxes renewed that treaty whe» 
he followed the designs of his father. 



XXXI. 

HISTORY OF SICILY. 

1. The early periods of the history of Sicily are no less 
unknown than those of Carthage. The Phoenicians had sent 
colonies thither before the Trojan war. The Greeks, in after 
times, made considerable settlements in the island. The 
Corinthians founded Syracuse, which became the most illus- 
trious of the Greek cities of Sicily ; and from Syracuse arose 
afterwards Agrigentum, Acra, Casmene, Camarene, and sev- 
eral other Sicilian towns. 

2. The government of Syracuse was monarchical, and 
might long have remained so, had all its sovereigns inher- 
ited the abilities and virtues of Geion. But his successors, 
exercising the worst of tyranny, compelled their subjects 
at length to abolish the regal government ; and their example 
was speedily followed by all the Grecian states of Sicily. 

3. The monarchy of Syracuse, however, was revived 
about sixty 3 ears after in the person of Dionysius, a man of 
obscure origin, but of signal ability. Twice expelled for a 
tyranicai exercise of dominion, he as often found means to 
overpower his enemies, and re-establish himself in the throne. 
At his death, the crown passed, v,^ithout opposition, to his 
son, Dionysius the younger, a weak and capricious tyrant, 
whom his subjects, judging unworthy to reign, dethroned and 
banished, 357 B. C. The crown was conferred on Dion, his 
brother-in-law : but this prince, wiiose amiable character ren- 
dered him the delight of his people, after a short reign, fell a 
victim to treason. Aided by the distractions of Syracuse 
consequent on this event. Dionysius remounted the throne 
ten years after his expulsion ; but his tyrannical disposition, 
heightened by his misfortunes, became at length so intoiera^ 
ble, that he was expelled a second time, and banished to Co- 
rinth, where he ended his days in poverty and obscurity. 
The author of this revolution was the illustrious Timoleon, 
to whose abilities and virtues his country owed equally its 



78 ANCIENT HISTORY. PART I. 

liberty and its subsequent happiness and prosperity, 343 
B. C. 



The signal opposition of national character between the 
Romans and Carthaginians may be easily accounted for, 
when we attend to the effects of a commercial life on the 
genius and maoners of a nation. The vices of a commer- 
cial people are, selfishness, cunning, avarice, with an absence 
of every heroic and patriotic virtue. The favourable effects 
of commerce are, industry, frugality, general courtesy of 
manners, improvement in the useful arts. Attending to 
(Iiese consequences of the prevalence of the commercial 
spirit, we shall see the principal features of the Carthaginian 
character opposed to the Roman. 



XXXII. 

THE rUNIC WAR-S. 

:. TtiL triumph which the Romans had obtained over 
i^yrrhus seemed to give assurance of success in any enter- 
prise in which they should engage. The JVLtmertines, a peo- 
ple of Campania, obtained aid from the Romans in an unjus- 
tifiable attempt which they made to seize Messina, a Sicihan 
town allied to Syracuse. The Syracusans, at first assisted 
by the Carthaginians, opposed this invasion ; but the former, 
more alarmed by the ambitious encroachments of the Car- 
thaginians on Sicily, soon repented of this rash alliance, and 
Joined the Romans in the purpose of expelhng the Carthagi- 
nians entirely from the island. In fact, the Sicilians seem to 
have had only the desperate choice of fmal submission either 
to Rome or Carthage. They chose the former, as the alter- 
native least dishonourable : The Romans had ever been 
their friends, the Carthaginians their enemies. 

2. Agrigentum, possessed by the Carthaginians, was taken, 
after along siege, by the joint forces of Rome and Syracuse, 
and a Rom^m fleet, the first they ever had, and equipped in 
a few weeks, gained a complete victory over that of Car- 
thage, at this time the greatest maritime power in the world, 
2G0 B. C. These successes were followed by the reduction 
of Corsica and Sardinia. In a second naval engagement, 



SECT. 32. ANCIENT HISTORY. 79 

the Romans took from the Carthaginians sixty of their ships 
of war, and now resolutely prepared for the invasion of Af- 
rica. The consul Regulus commanded the expedition. He 
advanced to the gates of Carthage : and such was the general 
consternation, that the enemy proposed a capitulation. In- 
spirited however, by a timely aid of Greek troops under 
Xantippus, the Carthaginians made a desperate effort, and, 
defeating the Roman army, made Regulus their prisoner. 
But repeatedly defeated in Sicily, they were at length seri- 
ously desirous of a peace ; and the Roman general was sent 
with their ambassadors to Rome to aid the negociation under 
a solemn oath to return to Carthage as a prisoner, should the 
treaty fail. It was rejected at the urgent desire of Regulus 
himself, who thus sacriticed his life to what he judged the 
interest of his countr}^ 

3. Lilyboeum, the strongest of the Sicilian towns belong- 
ing to Carthage, was taken after a siege of nine years. Af- 
ter some alternate successes, two naval battles won by the 
Romans terminated the war ; and Carthage at last obtained 
a peace, on the humiliating terms of abandoning to the Ro- 
mans all her possessions in Sicily, the payment of 3200 tal- 
ents of silver, the restitution of all prisoners without ransom^ 
and a solemn engagement never to make war against Syra= 
cuse or her allies. The island of Sicily was now declared a 
Roman province, though Syracuse maintained her indepen- 
dent government, A. U. C. 611, and B. C. 241. 

4. The peace between Rome and Carthage was of twenty- 
three years duration. The latter power was recruiting her 
strength, and meditated to revenge her losses and disgrace, 
The second Punic war began on the part of the Carthagini- 
ans, who besieged Saguntum, a city of Spain in alliance with 
the Romans. The young Hannibal took Saguntum, after a 
siege of seven months ; the desperate inhabitants setting lire 
to the town, and perishing amidst the flames. Hannibal now 
formed the bold design of carrying the war into Ital}^ He 
provided against every difficulty, gained to his interest a part 
of the Gallic tribes, passed the Pyrenees, and finally the 
Alps,* in a toilsome march of five months and a half from 
his leaving Carthagena ; and arrived in Italy with 20,000 
foot and 6000 horse. 

5. In the first engagement the Romans were defeated, and 
they lost two other important battles at Trebia and the lake 

* The passage of Hannibal over the Alps has been lately illustiated, in a 
most learned and ingenious ess»y, by Mr. Whitaktr, the celebrated historian 
of Manchester, and vindicator of Queen Mary, who has, with great acute- 
ness, traced every step of the Carthaginian general, from his crossing ths 
llhone to his final arrival in Italv. 



80 ANCIENT HISTORY, PART I, 

Thrasymenus. In the latter of these the consul Flaminius 
was killed, and his army cut to pieces. Hannibal advanced 
to Cannae in Apulia ; and the Romans there opposing him 
with their whole force, a memorable defeat ensued, in which 
40,000 were left dead upon the field, and amongst these the 
consul ^miiius, and almost the whole body of the R6man 
knights. Had Hannibal taken advantage of this great victo- 
ry, by instantly attacking Rome, the fate of the republic was 
mevitable ; but he deliberated, and the occasion was lost. 
The Romans concentrated all their strength ; even the 
slaves armed in the common cause, and victory once more 
attended the standards of the republic. Philip, king of Ma- 
cedon, joined his forces to the Carthaginians, but, defeated 
by LevinuB, speedily withdrew his assistance. Hannibal re- 
treated before the brave Marcellus. Syracuse had now tak- 
en part with Carthage, and thus paved the way for the loss of 
iier own liberty. Marcellus besieged the city, which was 
long defended b)'^ the inventive genius of Archimedes, but 
taken in the third year by escalade in the night. This event 
put an end to the kingdom of Syracuse, which now became 
a part of the Roman province of Sicily, A. U. C. 642, B. C. 
212. 

6. While the war in Italy was prosperously conducted by 
the great Fabius, who, by constantly avoiding a general en- 
gagement, found the true method of weakening his enemy, 
the younger Scipio accomplished the entire reduction of 
Spain. Asdrubal was sent into Italy to the aid of his broth- 
^'r Hannibal, but was defeated by the consul Claudius, and 
slain in battle. Scipio, triumphant in Spain, passed over in- 
to Africa, and carried havoc and devastation to the gates of 
Carthage. Alarmed for the fate of their empire, the Car- 
thaginians hastily recalled Hannibal from Italy. The battle 
of Zama decided the fate of the war, by the utter defeat of 
the Carthaginians. They entreated a peace, which the Ro- 
mans gave on these conditions : That the Carthaginians 
should abandon Spain, Sicily, and all the islands ; surrender 
all their prisoners, give up the whole of their fleet except 
ten galUes, pay 10,000 talents, and, in future, undertake 
ao war without the consent of the Romans, A. U. C. 552, 
B. C. 202. 

7. Every thing now concurred to swell the pride of the 
conquerors, and to extend their dominion. A war with Phi- 
lip of Macedon was terminated by his defeat ; and his son 
Demetrius was sent to Rome as a hostage for the payment 
of a heavy tribute imposed on the vanquished. A war with 
AntiQchiis, king of Syria, ended in his ceding to the Roman? 



&ECT. 33'. ANCIENT HISTORY. 8i 

the whole of the Lesser Asia. But these splendid conquests,, 
while they enlarged the empire, were fatal to its virtues, and 
subversive of the pure and venerable simplicity of ancient 
times. 

8.^The third Punic war began A. U. C. 605, B. C. 149, 
and ended in the ruin of Carthage. An unsuccessful war with 
the Numidians had reduced the Carthaginians to great weak- 
ness, and the Romans meanly laid hold of that opportunity 
to invade Africa. Conscious of their utter inability to resist 
this formidable power, the Carthaginians offered every sub- 
mission, and consented even to acknowledge themselves the 
subjects of Rome. The Romans demanded 300 hostages, 
for the strict performance of every condition that should be 
enjoined by the senate. The hostages were given ; and the 
condition required was, that Carthage itself should be razed 
to its foundation. Despair gave courage to this miserable 
people, and they determined to die in the defence of their na- 
tive city. But the noble effort was in vain. Cartheige was 
taken by storm, its inhabitants massacred, and the city burnt 
to the ground, A. U. C. 607, B. C. 146. 

9. The same year was signalized by the entire reduction 
i of Greece under the dominion of the Romans. This was 
the 33 ra of the dawn of luxury and taste at Rome, the 
natural fruit of foreign wealth, and an acquaintance with fo- 
reign manners. In the unequal distribution of this imported 
wealth, the vices to which it gave rise, the corruption and ve- 
nalty of which it became the instrument, we see the remoter 
causes of those fatal disorders to which the republic owed 
its dissolution. 



xxxiir. 

THE GRACCHI AND THE CORRUPTION OF THE COxMMON- 

WEALTH. 

1. At this period arose Tiberius and Caius Gracchus, two 
noble youths, whose zeal to reform the growing corruptions 
of the state precipitated them at length into measures de- 
structive of ail government and social order. Tiberius, the 
elder of the brothers, urged the people to assert by force the 
revival of an ancient law, for limiting property in land, and 
thus abridging the overgrown estates of the patricians. A 
tumult was the consequence, in which Tiberius, with 300 of 
his friends, were killed in the forum. This fatal example 

8* 



BS ANCIENT HISTORY V PART 1. 

did not deter his brother, Caius Gracchus, from pursuing a 
similar career of zeal or of ambition. After some success- 
ful experiments of his power, while in the office of tribune, 
he directed his scrutiny into the corruptions of the senate, 
and prevailed in depriving that body of its constitutional 
control over all the inferior magistrates of the state. Em- 
ploying, like his brother, the dangerous engine of tumultuary 
force, he fell a victim to it himself, with 3G00 of his parti- 
sans, who were slaughtered in the streets of Rome. The 
tumults attending the sedition of the Gracchi were the pre- 
lude to those civil disorders which now followed in quick 
succession to the end of the commonwealth. 

2. The circumstances attending the war with Jugurtha 
gave decisive proof of the corruption of the Roman manners. 
Jugurtha, grandson of Masinissa, sought to usurp the crown 
of Numidia by destroying his cousins, Hi^empsal and Adher- 
1)al, the sons of the last king. He murdered the elder of the 
brothers ; and the younger applying for aid to Rome, Ju- 
«;urtha bribed the senate, who declared him innocent of all 
culpable act or design, and decreed to him the sovereignty 
of half the kingdom. This operated onl;y as an incentive to 
his criminal ambition. He declared open war against his 
cousin, besieged him in his capital of Cirta, and finally put 
iiim to death. To avert a threatened war, Jugurtha went in 
person to Rome, pleaded his own cause in the senate, and 
once more by bribery secured his acquittal from all charge 
of criminality. A perseverance, however, in a similar train 
of conduct, finally drew on him, the vengeance of the Ro- 
mans ; and being betrayed into their hands by his own fa- 
ther-in-law, he was brought in chriins to Rome, to grace the 
triumph of the consul Marius, confined to a dungeon, and 
starved to death, A. U. C. 651, B. C. 103. 

3. The ambition of the allied states of Italy to attain the 
rights of citizenship produced the Social war, which ended 
in a concession of those rights to such of the confederates 
as should return peaceably to their allegiance. This war 
with the allies was a pi elude to that which followed between 
R6me and her own citizens. Sylla and Marius, rivals, and 
thence enemies, were at this fime the leaders of the repub- 
lic. Sjdla, commanding in a war against Mithridatfs, was 
superseded, and receJled from Asia. He refused to obey 
the mandate ; and found his army well disposed to support 
him. " 1-et us march to Rome." said they, with one voice ; 
*' lead us on to avenge the cause of oppressed liberty.' 
Sylla accordingly led them on, and they entered Rome| 
feword in hand : Marius and his partisans fled with prccipi- 



SECT. 33. ANCIENT HISTORY. 8S 

tation from the city, and Sylla ruled for a while triumphant. 
But the faction of his rival soon recovered strength. Murius 
returning to Italy, and joining his forces to those of Cnma, 
his zealous partisan, laid siege to Rome ; and, while Sylla 
was engaged in the Mithridatic war, compelled the city to 
absolute submission. After a horrible massacre of all whom 
they esteemed their enemies, Marius and Cinna proclaimed 
themselves consuls, without the formality of an election j 
but Marius died a few days after in a fit of debauch. 

4. After a victorious campaign in Asia, Sylla returned to 
Italy, and, joined by Cethegus, Verres, and the young Pom- 
pey, gave battle to the party of his enemies, and entirely de- 
feated them. His entry into Rome was signalized by a 
dreadful massacre, and a proscription, which had for its ob- 
ject the extermi nation of every enemy whom he had in Italy. 
Elected dictator for an unlimited period, he was now with- 
out a rival in authority, and absolute master of the govern- 
ment, which, of course, was substantially no longer a republic. 
In the exercise of his dominion, he deserved more praise 
than in the means of acquiring it. He restored the senate to 
its judicial authority, regulated the election to all the impor- 
tant offices of state, and enacted many excellent lav/s against 
oppression, and the abuse of power. Finally, he gave de- 
monstration, if not of a pure conscience, at least of a mag- 
nanimous intrepidit}^ of character, by voluntarily resigning 
all command, retiring to the condition of a private citizen, 
and offering publicly to give an account }f bis conduct. He 
died within a short time after his resignatjon : — a man cer- 
tainly of great strength of mind, and who had some of the 
qualities of an heroic character ; but he lived in evil times, 
when it was impossible at once to be great and to be virtu- 
ous. 

6. The death of Sylla renewed the civil war. Lepidus, 
a man of mean abilities, aspired to succeed him in power ; 
and Pompey, with superior talents, cherished the sj.me am- 
bition. While the latter was employed in the reduction of 
the revolted provinces of Asia, the conspiracy of Catiline 
threatened the entire destruction of ICome. It was extin- 
guished by the provident zeal and active patriotism of the 
consul Cicero ; and Cataline himself, with his chief accom-' 
plices, were attacked in the field, and defeated by Antomus; 
The traitor made a desperate defence, and died a better death 
than his crimes had merited. 

6. Julius Caesar now rose into public notice. Sylla dread- 
ed his abilities and ambition, and had numbered him among 
the proscribed. '' There is many a Marius," said he, " in 



84 ANciEN'T flisTony. part r, 

*' the person of that young man." He had learned prudence 
from the danger of his situation, and tacitly courted popular- 
ity, without that show of enterprise which gives alarm to a 
rival. While Pompey and Crassus contended for the com- 
mand of the republic, Caesar, who knew, that by attaching 
himself to either rival, he infallibly made the other his ene- 
my, showed the reach of his talents by reconciling them, and 
thus acquiring the friendship of both. From favour to their 
mutual friend, they agreed to a partition of power ; and thus 
was formed the first Triumvirate. Caesar was elected consul. 
He increased his popularity by a division of lands among the 
poorer citizens, and strengthened his interest with Pompey, 
by giving him his daughter in marriage. He had the com- 
mand of four legions, and the government of Transalpine 
Gaul and Illyria. 

7. The military glory of the republic, and the reputation of 
Ceesar, were nobly sustained in Gaul. In the first year of 
his government he subdued the Helvetii, who, leaving their 
own country, had attempted to settle themselves in the better 
regions of the Roman province. He totally defeated the Ger- 
mans under Ariovistus, who had attempted a similar inva- 
sion. The Belgag, the Nervii, the Celtic Gauls, the Suevi, 
Menapii, and other warlike nations, were all successively 
brought under subjection. In the iburth year of his govern- 
ment, he transported his army into Britain. Landing at Deal, 
he was opposed by the natives with equal courage and mili- 
tary skill. He gained, however, several advantages, and, 
binding the Britons to submission, withdrew, on the approach 
of winter, into Gaul. He returned in the following summer 
with a greater fjrce, and prosecuting his victories, reduced a 
considerable portion of the island under the Roman domin- 
ion, B. C. 51. Bat the pressure of affairs in Italy suspend- 
ed for a time, the progress of the Roman arms in Britain. 

8. Caesar dreaded the abihties of Cicero, who had oppos- 
ed him in his views of ambition. By the machinations of 
his partisans, while himself absent in Gaul, he procured the 
banishment of Cicero, and the confiscation of his estates, on 
the pretence of illegal measures pursued in the suppression 
of the conspiracy of Catihne. During an exile of sixteen 
months in Greece, Cicero gave way to a despondency of 
mind utterly aiAvorthy of the philosopher. Pompey had 
abandoned him, and this ungrateful desertion bore most hea- 
vily upon his mind : but Pompey himself, in the wane of his 
reputation, soon became desiraus to prop his own sinking 
fortunes by the abilities of Cicero, and eagerly promoted his 
recal from exile. The death of Crassus, in an expedition! 



SECT. 34. A^'CIENT HISTORY. S5 

against the Parthians, now dissolved the Triumvirate ; and 
Ccesar and Pompey, whose union had no other bond than 
interest, began each to conceive separately the view of un- 
divided dominion. 



XXXIV. 

PROGRESS OF THE CIVIL WARS SBCOND TRIUMVIRATE ANiS 

FALL OF THE REPUBLIC. 

1. The ambition of Caesar and of Pompey had now 
evidently the same object ; and it seemed to be the onl}'^ 
question in those degenerate times, to which of these aspir- 
ing leaders the republic should surrender its liberties. The 
term of Cajsar's government was near expiring ; but to se- 
cure himself against a deprivation of power, he procured a 
proposal to be made in the senate by one of his partisans, 
which wore the appearance of great moderation, namely, 
that Caesar and Pompey should either both continue in their 
governments, or both be deprived of them, as they were 
equally capable of endangering the public liberty by an abuse 
of power. The motion passed ; and Caesar immediately of- 
fered to resign, on condition that his rival should do so : but 
Pompey rejected the accommodation ; the term of his go- 
vernment had yet several years duration, and he suspected 
the proposal to be a snare laid for him by Caesar. He re- 
solved to maintain his right by force of arms, and a civil 
war was the necessary consequence. The consuls and a 
great part of the senate were the friends of Pompey. Cae- 
sar had on his side a victorious army, consisting of ten le- 
gions, and the body of the Roman citizens, whom he had 
won by his liberality. Mark Antony and Cassius, at that 
lime tribunes of the people, left Rome, and repaired to 
Ccesar's camp. 

2. The senate, apprehensive of his designs, pronounced 
a decree, branding with the crime of parricide any com- 
mander who should dare to pass the Rubicon (the bounda- 
ry between Italy and the Gauls) with a single cohort, without 
their permission. C^sar infringed the prohibition, and march- 
ed straight to Rome; Pompey, to whom the senate commit- 
ted the defence of the state, had no army. He quitted 
Rome, followed by the consuls and a part of the senate, and 
endeavoured hastily to levy troops over all Italy and Greece ; 
while Caesar triumphantly entered the city amidst the accla- 



Q6 ANCIENT HISTORY. PARTI. 

mations of the people, seized the public treasury, and 
possessed himself of the supreme authority without opposi- ~ 
tion. Having secured the capital of the empire, he set out 
to take the field against his enemies. The lieutenants of 
Pompey had possession of Spain. Caesar marched thither, 
and subdued the whole country in the space of forty days. 
He returned victorious to Rome, where, in his absence, he 
had been nominated dictator. In the succeeding election of 
magistrates he was chosen consul, and thus invested, by a 
double title, with the right of acting in the name of the re- 
public. Pompey had by this time raised a numerous army, 
and Caesar was anxious to bring him to a decisive engage- 
ment. He joined him in Illyria, and the first conflict was 
of doubtful issue ; but leading on his army to Macedonia, 
where they found a large reinforcement, he gave batUe to 
Pompey in the field of Pharsalia, and entirely defeated him. 
Fifteen thousand were slain, and 24,000 surrendered them- 
selves prisoners to the victor, A. U. C. 703, B. C. 49. 

3. The fate of Pompey was miserable in the extreme. 
With his wife Cornelia, the companion of his misfortunes, he 
fled to Egypt in a single ship, trusting to the protection of Pto- 
lemy, whose father had owed to him his settlement on the 
throne. But the ministers of this young prince, dreading 
the power of Caesar, basely courted his favour by the mur- 
der of his rival. Brought ashore in a small boat by the 
guards of the king, a Roman centurion, who had fought un- 
der his own banriers, stabbed him, even in the sight of Cor- 
nelia, and cutting off his head threw the body naked on 
the sands. Caesar pursued Pompey to Alexandria, where 
the head of that unhappy man, presented as a grateful offer- 
ing, gave him the first intelligence of his fate. He wept, and 
turned with horror from the sight. He caused every honour 
to be paid to his memory, and from that time showed the 
utmost beneficence to the partisans of his unfortunate rival. 

4. The sovereignty of Egypt was in dispute between Pto- 
lemy and his sister Cleopatra. The latter, though married 
to her brother, and joint heir by their father's will, was am- 
bitious of undivided authority ; and Caesar, captivated by 
her charms, decided the contest in favour of the beauteous 
queen. A war ensued, in which Ptolemy was killed, and 
Egypt subdued by the Roman arms. In this war the fa- 
mous library of Alexandria was burnt to ashes, B. C. 48. 
A revolt of the Asiatic provinces, under Pharnaces the son 
of Mithridates, was signally chastised, and the report con- 
veyed by Caesar to the Roman senate in three word's, ^'cm, 
•vidt) vici. The conqueror returned to Rome, which needed 



SECT. 34. ANCIENT HISTORY, 87 

his presence : for Italy was divided, and the partisans of 
Pompey were yet extremely formidable. His two sons, with 
Cato and Scipio, were in arms in Africa. Caesar pursued 
them thither, and, proceeding with caution till secure of his 
advantage, defeated them in a decisive engagement at Thap- 
sus. Scipio perished in his passage to Spain. Cato, shut- 
ting himself up in Utica, meditated a brave resistance ; but 
finally, seeing no hope of success, he determined not to sur- 
vive the liberties of his country, and fell deliberately by his 
own hand. Mauritania was now added to the number of the 
Roman provinces, and Caesar returned to Rome absolute 
master of the empire. 

' 5. From that moment his attention was directed solely 
to the prosperity and happiness of the Roman people. He 
remembered no longer that there had been opposite parties ; 
benehcient alike to the friends of Pompey as to his own. He 
. laboured to reform every species of abuse or grievance. He 
introduced order into every department of the state, defining 
the separate rights of all its magistrates, and extending his 
cure to the regulation of its most distant provinces. There- 
formation of the kalendar, the draining the marshes of Italy, 
the navigation of the Tiber, the embellishment of Rome, 
the complete survey and delineation of the empire, alter- 
nately employed his liberal and capacious mind. — Returning 
from the final overthrow of Pompey's party in Spain, he 
was hailed the Father of his Country, was created consul 
for ten years, and perpetual dictator. His person was de- 
clared sacred, his title henceforth Jmperator, A. U. C. 709, 
B. C. 45. 

6. The Roman republic had thus finally, by its own acts, 
(^resigned its liberties. They Avere not extinguished, as Mon- 
tesquieu has well remarked, by the ambition of a Pompey 
or of a Cassar. If the sentiments of Caesar and Pompey 
had been the same with those of Cato, others would have 
had tlie same ambitious thoughts ; and since the common- 
wealth was fated to fall, there never would have been want- 
ing a hand to drag it to destruction. Yet Caesar had by 
force subdued his country ; he therefore was an usurper ; 
and had it been possible to restore the liberties of the re- 
public, and with these its happiness, by the suppression of 
that usurpation, the attempt had merited the praise at least 
of good design. Perhaps so thought his murderers ; and 
thus, however weak their policy, however base and treache- 
rous their act, with many they will ever find apologists. 
They madly dreamed an impossible issue, as the event de- 
monstrated < 



88 ANCIENT HISTORV. PART I. 

7. A conspiracy was formed by sixty of the senators, at 
the head of whom were Brutus and Cassius ; the former a 
man beloved of Caesar, who had saved his hfe, and heaped 
upon him numberless benefits. It was rumoured that the 
dictator wished to add to his numerous titles that of king, 
and that the Ides of March was fixed on for investing him 
with the diadem. On that day, when taking his seat in the 
senate-house, he was suddenly assailed by the conspirators ; 
he defended himself for some time against tiieir daggers, till, 
seeing Brutus amongst the number, he faintly exclaimed, 
" And you, too, my son 1" and, covering his face with his 
robe, resigned himself to his fate. He fell, pierced by 
twenty-three wounds, A. U. C. 711, B. C. 43. 

8. The Roman people were struck with horror at the 
deed : they loved Cassar, master as he was of their lives 
and liberties. Mark Antony and Lepidus, ambitious of suc- 
ceeding to the power of the dictator, resolved to pave the 
way by avenging his death. The people to whom Caesar, 
by his testament, had bequeathed a great partof his fortune, 
were penetr ited with gratitude to his memory. A public 
harangue from Antony over the bleeding body, exposed in 
the forum, inflamed them with the utmost indignation against 
his m irderers, who must have met with instr^nt destruction, 
had they not escaped with precipitation from the city. An- 
tony profited by these dispositions ; and the avenger of Cas- 
sar, of course the favourite of the people, was in the imme- 
di.ite prospect of attaining a similar height of dominion. In 
this, however, he found a formidable competitor in Octavius, 
the grand-nephew and the adopted heir of Cassar, who, at 
this critical moment, arrived in Rome. Availing himself of 
these titles, Octavius gained the senate to his interest, and 
divided with Antony the favour of the people. The rivals, 
soon perceived that it was their wisest plan to unite their 
interests ; and they admitted Lepidus into their association, 
whose power, as governor of Gaul, and immense riches, 
gave him a title to u share of authority. Thus was formed 
the second Triumvirate, the effects of whose union were be- 
yond measure dreadful to the republic. The triumviri di- 
vided among themselves the provinces, and cemented their 
union by a deliberate sacrifice made by each of his best 
friends to the vengeance of his associates, Antony consigned 
to death his uncle Lucius, Lepidus his brother Paulus, and 
Octavius his guardian Toranius, and his friend Cicero. In 
this horrible proscription 300 senators and 3000 knights 
were put to death. 

9. Octavius and Antony now marched against the conspi- 



'^ircT. 34. ANCTEJO"!? ai<5Toa5r. S9 

rators, who had a formidable army in the field in Thrace, 
commanded by Brutus and Cassius. An engagement ensu- 
ed at Philippi, which decided the fate of the empire. — 
Antony was victorious, for Octavius had no military 
talents ; he was destitute even of personal bravery ; and 
his conduct after the victopy was stained with that cru- 
elty which is ever the attendant of cowardice. Brutus and 
Cassius escaped the vengeance of their enemies by a volun- 
tary death. Antony now sought a recompense for his troops 
by the plunder of the east. While in Cilicia, he summoned 
Cleopatra to answer for her conduct in dethroning an infant 
brother, and in openly favouring the party of Brutus and 
Cassius. The queen came to Tarsus, and made a complete 
conquest of the Triumvir. Immersed in luxury, and intox- 
icated with love, he forgot glory, ambition, fame, and every 
thing for Cleopatra ; and Octavius saw this phrenzy with de- 
light, as the preparative of his rival's ruin. He had nothing 
to dread from Lepidus, whose insignificant character first 
drew on him the contempt of his partisans ; and whose fol- 
1}% in attempting an invasion of the province of his colleague, 
was punished by his deposition and banishment. 

10. Antony had in his madness lavished the provinces of 
the empire in gifts to his paramour and her children. The 
Roman people were justly indignant at these enormities ; 
and the divorce of his v/ife Octavia, the sister of his col- 
league, was at length the signal of declared hostility between 
them. An immense armament, chiefly naval, came to a de- 
cisive conflict near Actium, on the coast of Epirus. Cleo- 
patra, who attended her lover, deserted him with her galleys 
in the heat of the engagement ; and such was the infatuation 
of Antony, that he abandoned his fleet and followed her. 
After a contest of some hours, they yielded to the squadron 
of Octavius, A, U. C. 723, B. C. 31. The victor pursued 
the fugitives to Egypt ; and the base Cleopatra proffered 
terms to Octavius, including the surrender of her kingdom, 
and the abandonment of Antony. After an unsuccessful at- 
tempt at resistance, he anticipated his fate by falling on his 
sword. And Cleopatra soon after, either from remorse, or 
more probabl3'^ from mortified ambition, as she found it waa 
Octavius' design to lead her in chains to Rome to grace hig 
triumph, had courage to follow the example of her lover, 
and put herself to death by the poison of an asp. — Octavius 
returned to Rome, sole master of the Roman empire^ 
A. U. C. 727, B. C. 27. 



<J0 ANCIENT HISTOfn. f.KRTt. 

XXXV. 

ONSIDERATIOKS ON SUCH PARTICULARS AS MARK THE GE* 
I«IUS A-ND NATIONAL CHARACTER OF THE ROMANS. 

SYSTEM OF P.OMAN EDUCATION. 

1. A VIRTUOUS but rigid severity of manners was the char- 
acteristic of the Ronmns m^ler their kin*:;?, and in the first 
ages of the re|)iibHr. 'J'he private hfe of the citizens, fru- 
gal, temperate, and laborious, had its influence on their pub- 
lic character. The Patria potestas gave to every head of a 
family a sovereign authority over all the members that com- 
posed it ; and this power, felt as a right of nature, was never 
abused. Plutarch has remarked, as a defect of the Human 
laws, that they did not prescribe, as those of Laceda^mon, a 
system and rules for the education of youth. But the truth 
is, the manners of tho people supplied this want. The ut- 
most attention was bestowed in the early formation of the 
mind and character. The excellent author of the dialogue 
]Je Oratoribus (whether (-^uintillian or Tacitus) presents a 
valuable picture of the Komau education iu the early ages 
of the commonwealtli, contrasted with the less virtuous 
practice of the more retined. The Roman matrons did not 
abiuulon their infants to mercrnnry nurses. They esteemed 
those duties s;icred, and regarded the careful nurture of their 
olVspring, the rudiments of their education, and the necessa- 
ry occupations of their household, as the highest points of 
female merit. Next to the c;ire bestowed in the instilment 
of virtuous morals, a remarkable degree of attention seems 
to have been given to the language of children, and to the 
attainment of a correctness and purity of expression. Cicero 
informs us, that the Gracchi^ the sons of Cornelia, were ed- 
ucated, }ion t(nn in s;rirmio quani m so-mone matrix. That 
urbanity wliicli characterized the Roman citizens showed it- 
self particularly in their speech and gesture. 

2. The attention to the huiguage of the youth had another 
source. It was by eloquence more than l)y an} other talent, 
that the young Roman could rise to the highest offices anfl 
dignities of the state. The stiuliaforensia were, therefore, 
a principal object of the Roman education. Plutarcli in- 
forms us, that aftong the sports of the children at Rome, 
one was, the pleading causes before a mock tribunal, and 
accusing and defending a criminal in the usual forms of ju- 
dicial procedure. 

3. The exercises of the body were likewise parUcularly 



SECT. 36. ANCIENT HISTORY. 91 

attended to : whatever might harden the temperament, and 
confer strength and agihty. These exercises were daily 
practised by the youth, under the eye of their elders, in the 
Campus Marlius. 

4. At seventeen the youth assumed the manly robe. He 
was consigned to the care of a master of rhetoric, whom ho 
attended constantly to the forum, or to the courts of justice -. 
for, to be an accomplished gentleman, it was necessary for 
a Roman to be an accomplished orator. The pains bestow- 
ed on the attainment of this character, and the best instruc- 
tions for its acquisition, we learn from the writings of Cicero, 
Q,uintilian, and the younger Pliny. 



XXXVI. 

OF THE PROGRESS OF LITERATURE AMONG THE ROMAN'S. 

1. Before the intercourse with Greece ,^which took place 
after tlie Punic wars, the Roman people was utterly rude and 
illiterate. As among all nations the first appearance of the 
literary spirit is shown in poetical composition, the Roman 
warrior liad probalily, like the Indian or the Celtic, his war 
fiongs which celebrated his triumphs in battle. Religion like- 
wise employs the earliest poetry of most nations ; and if a 
people subsists by agriculture, a plentiful harvest is cele- 
brated in the rustic song of the husbandman. The Versus 
Fcsccnni'ni, mentioned by Livy, were probabl}-^ of the nature 
of poetical dialogue, or alternate verses sung by the la- 
])0urers, in a strain of coarse merriment and raillery. This 
shows a dawning of the drama. 

2. Al)out the 300th year of Rome, on occasion of a pes- 
tilence, Ludioncs (drolls or stage-dancers) were brought from 
Etruria, qui ad tihici'm's niodos sakantes, hand indecoros mo- 
tus more Tusco dabont. Livy tells us, that the Roman youth 
imitated these performances, and added to them rude and jo« 
cular A-erses, probably the Kcsconnine dialogues. It wa* 
not, however, till the year 514 A. U. C. ihat the regular dra- 
ma was introduced at Rome from Greece by Livius Andro- 
nicus. The earliest Roman ])lays Averc therefore, we may 
presume, translations from the Greek. 

Post Pnnica bella quietus qu.>rere cepit, 

Quid Sophocles, et Thtspis, et .lilschylus utile fcrrent. 

'. Of the early Roman drama Ennius was a great orna- 
ment, and from his time the art made rapid advanceme»»t. 
The comedie.-! of Plautus, the cotemporary of Ennius, wiH' 



92 ANGIBNT HISTORY. FART I;. 

great strength and spirit of dialogue, display a considerable 
Itnowledge of human nature, and are read at this day with 
pleasure. 

4. Cfficilius improved so much on the comedy of Plau- 
rus, that he is mentioned by Cicero as perhaps the best of 
the Roman comic writers. Of his compositions we have no 
remains. His patronage fostered the rising genius of Te- 
rence, whose first comed}^ the Andria, was performed A. 
U. C. 687. The merit of the comedies of Terence lies in 
that nature and simplicity which are observable alike in the 
structure of his fables, in the delineation of his characters, 
and in the delicacy and purity of the sentiments of his pieces. 

They are deficient, however, in comic energy ; they are not- 
calculated to excite ludicrous emotions. They are chiefly 
borrowed from the Greek of Menander and Apoilodorus. 

5. The Roman Comedy was of four different species : the 
Comccdia Togata or Prcetextaia^ the Comocdla Tabcrnaria, 
ihe Attcllanve.^ and the Mimi. The first admitted serious 
scenes and personages, and was of the nature of the modern 
sentimental comedy. The second was a representation of 
ordinary life and manners. The AitellancB were pieces where 
the dialogue was not committed to writing, but the subject of 
the scene was prescribed, and the dialogue filled up by the 
talents of the actors. The Mimi were pieces of comedy of 
die lowest species ; farces, or entertainments of buffoonery ; 
thoii2;h sometimes admitting the serious, and even the pa- 
thetic. 

6. The Roman tragedy kept pace in its advancement 
with the comedy. The best of the Roman tragic poets were 
Actius and Pacuvius, of whom we have no remains. The 
tragedies published under the name of Seneca are generally 
esteemed the work of different hands. They are none of 
them of superlative merit. 

7. Velleius Paterculus remarks, that the era of the per- 
fection of Roman literature was the age of Cicero ; compre- 
hending all of the preceding times whom Cicero might have 
seen, and all of the succeeding who might have seen him. 
Cicero, Q,uiniilian, and Pliny, celebrate, in high terms, the 
writings of the elder Cato, whose principal works were his- 
torical, and have entirely perished. VVe have his fragments, 
de Re Rustica, in which he was imitated by Varro, one of. 
the earliest of the good writers among the Romans, and a 
man of universal erudition. Of the" variety of his talents 
we may judge, not only from the splendid eulogium of Ci- 
cero, but from the circumstance of Pliny having recour,?c 
to his authority in every book of his Natural History. 



SECT. 36. ^i^t'II^NT HISTORV. 03 

8. Sallust in order of time, comes next to Varro. This 
Writer introduced an important improvement on history, as 
treated by the Greek historians, by applying, (as Dionysius 
of Halicarnassus says) the science of philosophy to the study 
of facts. Sallust is therefore to be considered as the father 
of philosophic history ; a species of writing which has been 
so successfully cultivated in modern times. He is an admi- 
rable writer for the matter of his compositions, which evince 
great judgment and knowledge of human nature ; but by 
no means commendable for his style and manner of writing. 
He affects singularity of expression, an antiquated phrase- 
ology, and a petulant brevity and sententiousness, which has 
nothing of the dignity of the historical style. 

9. Caesar has much more purity of style, and more cor- 
rectness and simplicity of expression ; but his Commenta- 
ries, wanting that amplitude of diction and fulness of illustra- 
tion which is essential to history, are rather of the naturer 
of annals. 

10. In all the requisites of an historian, Livy stands unri- 
valled among the Romans ; possessing consummate judg- 
ment in the selection of facts, perspicuity of arrangement^ 
sagacious reflection, sound views of policy, with the most 
copious, pure, and eloquent expression. It has been object- 
ed, that his speeches derogate from the truth of history ; but 
this was a prevalent taste with the ancient writers ; and as 
those speeches are always known to be the composition of 
the historian, the reader is not deceived. As to the style of 
Livy, though in general excellent, we sometimes perceive 
in it, and most commonly in the speeches, an ailectation of 
the pointed sentences (the vibranies sententiolit) and obscu- 
rity of the declaimers, which evinces the pernicious influ- 
ence acquired by those teachers at Rome since the time of 
Cicero and Sallust. 

11. In the decline of Roman literature, Tacitus is an his- 
torian of no common merit. He successfully cultivated the 
method pointed out by Sallust, of applying philosophy to 
history. In this he displa3'^s great knowledge of human na- 
ture, and penetrates, with singular acuteness, into the secret 
springs of policy, and the motives of actions. But his fault 
is, that he is too much of a politician, drawing his charac- 
ters after the model of his own mind ; ever assigning ac- 
tions and events to preconceived scheme and design, and 
allowing too little for the operation of accidental causes, 
which often have the greatest influence on human affairs. 
Tacitus, in his style, professedly imitated that of Sallust ; 
adopting all the ancient phraseology, ^ well as the new 

9* 



^i AKciE.vT nrsTORv. part I. 

idioms introduced iiito ilie Koniiin lanjjua^e by that writer. 
To Ijjs In'cvity and :il)iuptn-'^!j, ho added iiio<l of th*.- laulls of 
tiir .li ' linmig s( hool. IJis exi»rf>sion, therefore, though 
extremely forcible, is often eni^natically obsrure ; the very 
worr-t properly th;il f<t>le ran possess. 

12. Among the eminent Koman poets (altrr the dramatic) 
Lucretius deserves lirst to be noticed. He ha** great ine- 
quality, beini;^t somctimis verbo«e, rugged, an-l perplexed, 
and at others displaying all the elejruue as well as the lire- 
of poetry. Tliis may be in great part attributed to his sub- 
ject. Fhiiiisophical disquisition is unsuitable to poetry. It 
demands a dry precision •)f thought and expression, rejecting 
all excursive fancy and ornament of diction. That luxuri- 
ance of imagery, which is the soul of poetry, is raving and 
tmperlinenre when applied to philo«.ophy. 

13. Catullus, ihe ( ()temp(»r;iry «.f Lurretius, is the earliest 
of the Jutman lyric poets. Hi< Kpi^rtuns are pointed and 
satirical, but too licentiou« ; \\i> Idylha tender, natural, and 
picturescpic. Me tlounshed in llie age of Jultn*^ f'.r'-.xr. 

11. In the succeeding age of Augustus, po« 1 to 

its highest elevation amoni^ the Rom '^ lurace, 

Ovid, and Tiliiiliii-., were all coliMnp' - > jl i«, al- 

lowed the same rank among the fioman poets as Homer 
among the Greek. If Homer excels him in the •sublime, he 
Sur|M^se-< the Greek in the tender anil the elegant. 'J'he 
transcendent merits of Homer are sullied by occasional de- 
ibct-^ ; Virgil i« the model of a correct taste. The difference 
of manner 11^ tlie Hucohc^, the Georgics, and the /Eneid, 
?jho»vs that Virgil was capable of excelling in various de- 
pnr(f»» nt- of poetry ; and such is the opinion of .Martial, 
who athrms, that he couUI have t.iirj».i^>»'d Mori.-, io Tynr 
poetry, and Varius in Tragedy. 

1 ^. Horace exr«ds a>. a l.ync poet, a s,itni>l, and a critic. 
Jn his Odes there is more variety than those of either 
Anacreon or Pindar ; and he can alternately display the sub- 
limity of the one, and the jocose vein of the other. Ui» 
Satires have that characteristic slyness and obliquity of cen- 
sure, associated with humour and pleasantry, whirh* strongly 
distinguish them from the stern and cutting sarca-ni of Juve- 
nal. As a critic, his rules air taken chietly trom Aristotle ; 
but they rontain the elements o( a just ta>te in .jjoetical 
composition, and therelbre do not admit of variation. The 
Satires of Juvenal, compare<l with those of Horace, are de- 
ficient in fa«:etious!ies.s aiul urbanity ; but they are superior 
n acuteness of thought, and in manly vigour of sentiment. 

'? In variety of talent, without supreme excellence, aod 



SECT. 37. AJTCfEN'T HISTORY. ^3 

ease ami elegance of number?, no Roman poet has excelled 
Ovid. In his Metamorphoses particularly, with groat faucy, 
we have specimens of t!ie pathetic, the descriptive, the elo- 
quent, and even the sublime. His Elegies have more of na- 
ture and of real passion than those of either TibuUus or Pro- 
pertius. His amatory verses have much tendernes!*, but are 
too frequently loose, and even grossly licentious. 

17. There is nothing more elegant than the compositions 
of TibuUu*. nothing more delicate than the turn of his expres- 
sion J hut u IS not the laniruagc of passion. The sentiments 
are tender, bat their power of affecting the heart is weakened 
by the visible care and sohcilude of the poet for refined 
phraseolo;7y and polished numbers ; nor is there either much 
fancy or variety of thought. A siriL^lc elegy rxliibits the sen- 
timents of the whole. 

18. Martial is the last of tlie Roman poets ^\ ho rnn he men- 
tioned with high approbation. His Epigrams, independent 
of their art and ingenuity, are valuable, as throwint; light up- 
on tlie Roman manneiN. He possesses above every other 
poet, a naivete, of expression, which is chiefly observable in 
his serious epigrams. He is well characterized by the 
young I'liny, in^cniosus, accr^ et (jui in scriheudo et salis ha- 
beret etjclhs^ nee tondoris minus. Epist. 3. 2\. 

19. Luxuriance of ornament, and the fondness for point, 
and brilliancy of thought and expression, are certain indica- 
tions of the decline of good titste. These characters ^trong- 
ly mark the Latin poets of the succeeding ages. Lucan has 
some scattere*! examples of genuine poeti<: ima«^erv, and 
Persius s(^me happy stroke** of animated satire ; but they 
scarcely compensate the affected obscurity of (he one, and 
the bombju^t of the other. The succeeding poets, Statius, 
Silius Italicus, and Valerius ^"laccus, in their attempts at the 
most difhcult of all species of poetry, the E[»ic, have only 

|inore signally displayed the inferiority of th«ir genius, ajid 
*bo manifest decay of the art. 



XXXVIl. 

>iAii ut IIIILOSOPHV AMO.NO THL ROMANS. 

1. The Romans, in the earlier periods of the repubh 
had little leisure to bestow on the cultivation of the sciencei, 
and Jiad no idea of philosophical speculation. It was not 
till (he end of the t?th century from the buUdjug of the city, 



06 AKCIEKT nrSTORV. FART I. 

and in the interval between the war \\\i\\ Perseus and the 
third Punic war, tliat pliilo>ophymade its tirst appearance at 
Rome. A lew learned Acha^aus, banished fi oni tlieir coun- 
try, had settled in various parts of Italy, and, apj)lying them- 
selves to the cultivation ot' literature and the etliication of 
youth, diiTiised a ta^^le for those studies hitherto uukuown 
to the Romans. The elder citizens rrpirded these pursuits 
with an unfavourable eye. Jealous of the introduction of 
foreii^n m.inuers with foreis^n studies, the senate Punished the 
Greek philosophers from Home. Hut an Athenian embas- 
sy, arriving soon after, brought tbilher Carneades and Crito- 
laus, who revived the taste fur the Cireek philosophy, and 
left behind them many able disciples, who publicly taught 
tlu if doctrines. 

2. It was natural that those systems should be nio«t gener- 
ally adopted which were most suitable to the national char- 
acter. While the manners of the Kon:ian-! bad yet a tincture 
of ancient severity, the Stoical s\steni prevailed. Scipio, 
LaBlius, and t'ne younger Cato, rank among its chief parti- 
sans. 

:-5. The ])hilosophy of Aristotle was little known in Rome 
till the a^e of Cicero. Cratippus and 'J'yrannion tlieu taught 
his system with great reputation. Yet Cicero complains that 
the Peripatetic philosophy wa«< litllc under>tood at Rome ; 
and, on that account, he sent hi.'^ son to stud\ its doctrines in 
the schools ot Athens. 

•I. Lucullu<. whose stay in Greece gave hini ;m oppoi luni- 
ty of being acquajntetl with all the ditlerent sects, dissemina- 
ted, on his return to Rome, a very general taste for pbiloso- 
phv. Ili-i patron;»ge of learned men, and hi-* liberality in al- 
lowing his library to be open for the public »ise. roiitributeil 
greatly to the promotion of literature. 

F). 'V\\r 0|<1 ,ii»d Nt'W Acailenjy had each their partisans. 
Of the former, which may be termed the Sloico-Pl Uonic, the 
most illustrious disciples were Marcus Brutus and Teren- 
tius Varro. To the philosophi<:al talents of Bnitus, and the 
universal erudition of Varro, the writin;;s of Cicero bear the 
most ample testimony. Cicero himself must be deemed the 
most eminent of ill the Roman philosoph<'rs. He is da.^sed 
among the principal supporters of the New Academy ; 
though it seems rather to have been his purpose to elnridatc 
the Greek ])hilosophy in general, than to rank himself ionong 
tlie disciples of any particular s''ct. 

6. The cultivation of Physics, or Natural Philosophy, 
seems to have been little atten<led to either by the Greeks 
or Romans. Unless Agriculture ahould be classed under 



SEtT. 38. ANCIENT BISTORT. 07 

this description, we know of no Roman autliors, except Var- 
Fo and tlie elder Pliny, who seem to have bestowed much 
attention on the operations of nature. The works of the 
former have perished, except a few fragments ; but the Nat- 
ural History of Pliny is a most valuable storehouse of the 
knowledge of the ancients in Physics, (Economics, and the 
Arts and Sciences. It is to be regretted that the style is un- 
suitable to the matter, being too frequently tlorid, declama- 
t?ory, and ol»scure. 

7. The philosophy of Epicurus was unknown in the early 
ages of the Roman commonwealth. It was introduced with 
luxury, and kept pace in its advancement with the corrup- 
tion of manners. Cineas havinjL: discoursed on the tenets 
of Ej>icurus at the table of Pyrrhu.-, Pabricius exclaimed, 
May the enemies of Rome ever entertiiin such principles I 
Yet these principles were, in a short time from that period 
Ijut too current among her own citizens. 



XXXVIII. 



• F 7HB PUBLIC AND PRIVATE MANNERS OF THE ROMANS. 

1. The manners of the Romans in the early ages of the 
vepublic were so different from those of the latter times, 
that one should be led to suppose some very extraordinary 
causes to have co-operated to produce so remarkable a 
change : yet the transition is easy to be accounted for. A 
spirit of temperance, of frugality, and probity, is t!»e cba- 
racteri>Jtic of every infiuit establishment. A virtuous simpli- 
city of manners, and a rigour of military discipline, paved 

I the way for the extension of the Roman arms, and for their 
' prodigious conquests : these con«iue<ts introduced wealth, 
luxury, and corruption. 

2. In the e;irly times, the patricians, when in the country, 
forgot the distinction of ranks, and laboured in the culliva- 
rion of their fields, like the meanest plebeians. We have the 
examples of Cincinnatus, Curitis, the elder Cato, and Scipio 
Africanus. The town was visiteil only every ninth or mar- 
ket-day. lo those times of virtuous simplicity, says Sallust, 
JJomi iiiilitid'ciue boni mores rolebanfur. — Dvabv^i a ' "«- 
dacia in bel'o, nbi pax evencra!^ arjuitate, s€(jur r, , ^ ^' ub- 
hcam curabant. But when, in consequence of this very dis- 
cipline, and these uiiinners, the Romans had cxlendrd their 



93 ANCIENT HISTORY. PART I. 

dominion, they imported with the wealth of the conquered 
nations their tastes, their manners, and their vices. 

3. The Komans had no natural taste in the tine arts. On 
the conquest of Greece, an immense field opened at once to 
their eyes, and the masterpieces of art poured in upon them 
in ahundance. But their excellencies they could not appre- 
ciate. The Uoman luxury, so i\\r as the arts were concern- 
ed, was in general displayed in an awkward, heavy, and taste- 
less mairniticence. 

4. The public and private life of the Romims will be best 
elucidated by a short account of the manner in which the 
day was passed at Rome, botb by tiie higher and lower ranks 
of the people. The morning liours were spent by a part of 
the citizens in visiting the temples ; by others in attending 
the levees of the great. The Clicntes waited on their Patro- 
ni ; the patricians visited each other, or paid their compli- 
ments to the leaders of the republic. Popularity was alwa3'S 
the first object of ambition at Rome, as paving the way to 
all advancement. Fron#t^ levee they proceeded to the Fo- 
rum, either to assist in the public business, or for amusement. 
There the time was spent till noon, the hour of dinner 
among the Romans, chiefly a very light repast, and of which 
it was not customary to invite any guests to partake. After 
dinner the youth repaired to the Campus Martins, where 
they occupied themselves in athletic exercises and sports till 
sunset. The elder class retired for an hour to repose, and 
then passed the afternoon in their i)orticoes, galleries, or li- 
braries, where they enjoyed the conversation of their friends, 
or heard recitations of literary works : others repaired to the 
theatres, or to tlie shows of the circus and amphitheatre. 

5. Combats of gladiators were introduced for the first 
ikme about the 490th )'^ear of the city, and soon became a 
most favourite amusement, as did the combats with wild 
beasts. The spirit of luxury, which in general is not unfa- 
vourable to humanity, showed its progress among the Romans 
by an increasing ferocity and inhumanit}^ of the public spec- 
tacles. Theatrical entertainments were in high request.-r*- 
Sec supra. Sect. XXXVI. § 2, 3, 4, 5, G. The taste for 
pantomime came to such a height, that the art was taught in 
public schools, and the nobility and people were divided into 
parties in favour of the rival performers : an abuse which 
called at length for the interposition of the laws. 

G. From the porticoes, or from the theatre and amphithe- 
atre, it was customary to go to the baths, of which there 
were many for the use of the public, Avhile the rich had them 
in their own house«, vying with each other in this as in ev^ry 



J 



SECT. 39. ANCIENT HISTORi . S9 

other article or luxury and magnificence. From the bath 
they went immediately to supper, generally about the ninth 
or tenth hour, counting from sunrise. At table they reclined 
on couches. The luxury of the Roman suppers far exceed- 
ed every thing known among the moderns. An antecoeni- 
am of pickles and spices was presented to prepare and shar- 
pen the appetite. Cookery became a science. The num- 
ber and costliness of the dishes were incredible. The enter- 
tainment was heightened by every thing gratifying to the 
senses, by male and female dancers, musicians, pantomimes, 
and even shows of gladiators. 

7. In the end of the republic, pleasure and amusement 
were the darhng objects of all ranks of the citizens ; they 
sought no more than panem et circenses. 



XXXIX. 

WF THE ART OF WAR AMONG THE ROMANS, 

1. From the prodigious success which attended the arms 
of the Romans, and that dominion they acquired over the 
greatest part of the known world, it seems a natural infer- 
ence, that they m;ist have carried the military art to a higher 
degree oi' perfection than any other of the cotemporary na- 
tions. Vegetius expressly assigns their extensive conquests 
lo that cause alone. It is the discipHne of an army that 
makes the multitude act as one man. It hkewise increases 
the courage of troops ; for each individual confides in the 
steady co-operation of his fellows. 

2. From the constant practice of athletic exercises, the 
Romans were inured from infancy to hardiness and fatigue, 
and bred to that species of life which a soldier leads in the 
most active campaign in tlie field. 

3. The levies were made annually, by the tribes called 
out, and divided into their respective number of centuries ; 
each century presenting by rotation as many soldiers as there 
were legions intended to be raised ; and the tribunes of the 
several legions taking their turn by rotation in the selection of 
the men presented by the centuries. See supra. Sect. 
XXIV. § 16. The number of soldiers in the legion was vari- 
ous at different periods, from 3000 to 10,000 and 11,000- 

4 Among the ancient nations there were usually but two 
different arrangements of the troops in order of battle. The 
one the Phdanx, or close arrangement in parallelogram, in 



)0U ANCIENT HISTORY. VARS I. 

fersected only by great divisions ; a di'?j)0<ition commonly 
nsed by the Greeks and by most of the barbarou.s nation*;. 
Fiie other the (Quincunx, or Chequer, consisting of small 
oomj)anies or platoons, disposed in three straight lines, with 
alr.'.Miate spaces between them ecpial to tiie space occupied 
by each company. In the tirst line were tlie Hastati, in the 
second the Frinn'j)es, and in the third the Triarii. On the 
fl tnki of the lirst Wmi were the cavalry, likewise in detached 
comjjanies ; and in front of the lino were the Velites, or light- 
armed troops, who usually began by a skirmi.^hing attack, 
and then were withdrawn to make way for the iniin body to 
come into action. Tlie arms of the legion were, for the has- 
iali and principes, the pilui/i or heavy j ivelin, and the sword 
and buckler ; an<l for the in'arii, the long spear, with the 
-word and buckler. The advantages of this arrangement 
were, that the line of battle fonld bo three times formed with 
t'resh trooj)-, and that it vv.i- more litted than any other for 
rapid changes of movement. 

.'). \ot\vith>tanding these advantages, the rp'iiicmLr went 
mto disuse to\vards the end ot the republic, and from that 
time various arrangements of the legion were used according 
to circimi-tances. The tactic of the K<^hv.uis is supposed to 
ha\c been at its greatest pilch of excellence during the Funic 
w.irs. Hannibal was a great master o^the science, and the 
Komans protited by the experience of his ability. The bat- 
tle of Canna% as described by l*olybius, allords signal evi- 
dence of the great talents of the Carthaginian gener.d. That 
de«cription hits been misrepresented by Folard, but is accu- 
rately exj)lained in iheAIcmoires .Militaircs of Mr. Guischardt. 
ITid the (piincunx disposition been kept by the Roman army 
m that engagement, the event might have been very differ- 
ent, as it would have disappoiutetl the etYect of an artful ma- 
aceuvre pl.mned by Hannibal, on observing his enemy's ar- 
my arrangcnl in the uiinsaal order of the ])halanx. 

C>. The art of iutrenchment was carried to great perfection 
by the Romans, particularly by Julius Caisar. With GO, 000 
men he defended himself in iiis intrenchments before Alexia, 
wliile the line~ of circumvallation were attacked by 2 10,000 
Gaul?, and the lines of countervallalion by 80,000, without 
effect. Tliese intrenchments consisted of a ditch from tiine 
to tiueen feet in depth and width, fenced on the inside by the 
mound of excavated earth, and on the outside by stroni;, 
stakes with pointed branches. 

7. In besieging a town, several camps were formed around 
the pliice, joined to each other by lines of circumvallation 
cmd countervallatiou. A mound of earth {(^^t^er) was rai?- 



6ECT. 40. ANCIENT HISTORy. iOl 

etl, beginning by a gentle slope from one of the camps, and 
gradually rising in elevation as it approached the city. The 
front, where the workmen were employed, was defend- 
ed by a curtain of hides fixed on strong posts. On this 
mound the engines of attack, Catapultce for the discharge of 
heavy stones, and Balistcc for arrows, were advanced, till 
they played on the very spot which the besiegers wished to 
assail. The same madiines were used by the besieged for 
annoying the enemy. When the batteries from the terrace 
had silenced those on the walls, the battering-ram (^aries) 
was then brought up under a pent-house (^testudo), and if it 
once reached the wall was generally decisive of the late of 
the town. The main object of the besieged was therefore 
to prevent its approach by every power of annoyance. 
Stones, darts, and combustible matters, were continually 
launched upon the assailants ; and sometimes a mine was 
dug from the city to scoop away the terrace and all its en- 
gines. — These arts of attack and defence of fortified places 
were in general use among the nations of antiquity, and con- 
tinued down to modern times, till the invention of gunpow- 
der. 

C. The naval military art was utterly unknown among the 
Romans till the tirst Punic war. A Carthaginian galley was 
the first model ; and in the space of two months they equip- 
ped a fleet of 100 gallies of five banks of oars, and 20 of 
three banks. The structure of these gallics, and the mode 
of ;uTanging the rowers, may be learned from the ancient 
sculptures and medals. The combatants at sea assailed at a 
distance with javelins, missile combustibles, and sometimes 
with caUtpitltin and balistce ; but the serious attack was 
made in boarding, when the vessels grappled together by 
means of a crane let down from the prow. 

9, In the times of the empire, the Romans maintained 
their distant conquests, not only by their armies, but by their 
fleets, which were moored in the large rivers and bays, and 
generally preserved a fixed station, as did the logions. 



XL. 



heVlections arising from a view of u're koman history 
during the commonwealtit. 

1 . The kistory of all nations evinces, that there is an insc- 
patable connexion between the morals oi' a people and thoir 

10 



J 



102 ANCIENT HISTOnV. PART T. 

political prosperity. But wc have no stronger demonstra- 
tion of this truth than the annals of the Komau coniinon- 
weiilth. To limit to republics alone, the neci ssily of virtue 
as a principle, is a rhimerical notion, fraught with iian!;erous 
consetjuences. (-luid leges sine moribns vunac projiciunty is 
a sentiment e<iually aj)plicable to ;ill governments whatever ; 
and no political b}>toni, howtver excellent its fabric, can 
possess any measure of duration, without that powerful ce- 
ment, virtue, in the principles and manners of tlie people. 
Siifiru, Sect. Xl\. vj. •}. 

2. The love of our country, ami the desire for its rational 
liberty, are noble and virtuous I'lMliuirs. and their prevalence 
is ever a test of the iut»*i;rity oi the nalional m«»ral«. Hut 
there is no term which has been more prostituted than the 
word liberty. Among a corrujitid people, the cry for liber- 
ty is heard the loudest lunon^ the most prolli^ate of tlu* rum- 
nmnity. With these its meaning hiis no relation to p.itriot- 
ism ; it import" no more tliaii tlie aversion to restraint ; and 
ihe pergonal character of the demagogue, and ti»e private 
L'ioraU of his disciples are ahv.iys sufficient to unmask the 
counterfeit. The spirit of palrioii>m ami a general corrup- 
tion of manners cannot po^^ibly be co-existent in tlic -.mic 
iige and nation. 

;>. On the other hand, uhilf the morals of a p< uple are 
pure, no public mi-furtune is irretrievable, nor any political 
situation solofesperate, that hope may not remain of a favour- 
able change. In such a crisis, the spirit of patriotism per- 
Tadini; all ranks of the state will soon recover the national 
proeip«'rity. The history of the Roman people, anti that of 
the Grecian states, in various crises, both of honoiir and of 
<lij'Si;race, aflbrd proofs alike of this position and of its con- 
verse. 

1. The national character of the Romans seems to have 
unlemone its most remarkable change for the worse I'rom 
the lime of llie destruction of their rival Carthage. Salhist 
assigns the cause : JIntc Ciirthaginem deletam^ — mctvs hos- 
tilii in bonis ariibiis civitutcm retiuehat. Sed uhi ilUi forini- 
do iiicnllbus decessit, scilicet ca fjiuf. sccxindoi res errnnnt, lasci- 
zia otijuc svperbia inrascre. 

b. In the la.-t a^^es of the comni'umealih, avarice and ;im- 
bilion. unrestrained by moral principle, were the chief mo- 
tives of tlie Roman conquests. It was sullicient retison tor 
<^oing to war, that a country ottered a temptiutf object to the 
r.ipiU ity and ambition of the military leaders. The con- 
quest of Italy paved the way for the reduction of foreign 
natioiis. Hence the Romans imported, with their wealth, 



•net. 40. ANCIENT HISTORY. lCf3 

ihe mnnner,?, the luxuries, and the vices of the nations they 
subdued. The generals returned not ns formerly after a 
successful war, to the labours of the Held, and to a lif^ of 
temperance and industry. They ^vere nou' the governors of 
K'itixdoms and provinces : and at the period of their com- 

iiand abroad, disdaining the restraints of a subject, they 
could be satisfied with nothing: less than sovereignty at 
home. The armies, debauched by the plunder of kingdoms, 
were < ompletely disposed to suf)})ort them in all their 
schemes of ambition ; and the populace, won by corruption, 
idways took part with the chiel who best could pay lor their 

ivour and support. Force or bribery overruled every elec- 
tion ; and the inhabitants of distant states, no%v holding thr 
rights of citizens, were brought to Koine at the command of 
the demagogue, to influence any ])opular contest, and turn 
the srale in his fivour. In agoveinment thus irretrievably 
destroyed by the decay of those springs which supported it, 
it wtLS of little consequence by the hands of what particular 
tyrant, usurper, or demagogue, its ruin was finally accom- 
plished. 

6. From the considenition of the rise and fall of the prin- 
cipal states of anti«iuity. it has been a commonly received 
observation, that the c^m.-titutiou of empires has, like the 
human body, a period of giowth, m;\turity, decline, and ex- 
tinctjon. But arguments from anrdogy are extremely de- 
ceiving, and particularly so when llie analogy is from phy- 
sical to moral truUis. The Iniman body is, from its fa* 
bri*", naturally subject to decay, and is perpetually un- 
dergoing a change from time. The orgrms, at first weak, 
atttiin gradually their i>erfect strength, and thence, by a 
fiimilar gradation, proceed to decay and dissolijtion. This 
i<5 an immutable law oC its nature. But the springs of the 

ody politic do not necessarily imdergo a perpetual change 
from time. It is not rcgulnrly progressive from weakness to 
strength, and thence to decny ami diifiolution ; nor is^it un- 
der the intltienceof any principle of corruption which may 
not be che;"kod, and even eradicated, by wholesome laws. 
TiiMs the beginning of the corrujition of Sparta is attributed 
toihe broach l)y Lysandcr of the institutions of Lycurgus, in 
introducing gold into the treasury of the state instead of her 
iron money. But was this a necessary or an unavoidable mea- 
sure ,' Forht\ps a single vote in the senate decreed its adop- 
uon, and therefore another suflVage might have saved or long 
po^tponevl the downfd of the commonwealth. The Roman 
rcpubli'" owed its dissolution to the exteii'sion of its domin- 

ons Had it been a Ciipital crime for any Roman citizea 



i04 ANCIENT HISTORY > RART I, 

to have propos^^d to carry the arms of the repubUc beyond 
the hmits of Italy, its constitution might have been preserv- 
ed for many ages beyond the period of its actual duration, 
" Accustom your mind," said Phocion to Aristias, " to dis- 
" cern, in the fate of nations, that recompense which the 
" great Author of nature has annexed to the practice of vir- 
'' tue. No state ever ceased to be prosperous, but in conse- 
•' quence of having departed from those institutions to which 
•• she owed her prosperity." History indeed has shown 
that all states and empires have had their period of duration ; 
but history, instructing us in the causes which have produc- 
ed their decline and downfall, inculcates also this salutary 
lesson, that they themselves are in general the masters of 
their destiny, and that all nations may, and most certainly 
Aught to aspire at, immortality. 

7. It was a great desideratum in ancient politics, that a 
government should possess within itself the power of period- 
ical reformation ; a capacity of checking an)' overgrowth of 
authority in any of its branches, and of winding up the ma- 
chine, or bringing back the constitution to its first principles. 
To the want of such a power in the states of antiquity, which 
was ineffectually endeavoured to be supplied by such partial 
contrivances as the Ostracism and Petalism, we may cer- 
tainly ascribe in no small degree the decay of those states ; 
for in their governments, when the balance was once destroy- 
ed, the evil grew worse from day to day, and admitted of no 
remedy but a revolution, or entire change of the system. — 
The British constitution possesses this inestimable advantage 
over all the governments both of ancieot and of modern times. 
Besides the perpetual power of reform vested in parliament., 
the constitution maybe purified of every abuse, and brought 
back to its first principles, at the commencement of every 
reign. But of this we shall afterwards treat in its proper 
idace. 



XLI. 

ROME UNDER THE EMPERORS. 

i. The battle of Actium decided the fiitc of the common- 
ivealth, and Octavius, now named Augustus, was master of 
the Roman empire. He possessed completely the sagacity 
of discerning what character was best fitted for gaining the 
affeGtions of the people he governed, and the versatility of 



SECT. 4io irNCtENT KI9TOR4 . 10i> 

temper and genius to assume it. His virtues, though the re- 
sult of pohcj, not of nature, were certainly favourable to the 
happiness, and even to the liberties of his subjects. The 
fate of Ca3sar warned him of the insecurity of an usurped do- 
minion ; and therefore, while he studiously imitated the en- 
gaging manners and clemency of his great predecessor, he 
affected a much higher degree of moderation and respect for 
the rights of the people. 

2. The temple of Janus was shut, which had been open 
for 188 years, since the beginning of the second Punic war ; 
an event productive of universal joy. " The Romans (says 
" Condillac) now believed themselves a free people, since 
'' they had no longer to fight for their liberty." The sove- 
reign kept up this delusion, by maintaining the ancient forms 
of the republican constitution, in the election of magistrates, 
&c. though they were nothing more than forms. He even 
pretended to consider his own function as merely a tempo- 
rary administration for the public benefit. Invested with the 
consulate and censorship, he went through the regular forms 
of periodical election to those offices ; and at the end of the 
seventh year of his government actually announced to the 
senate his resignation of all authority. The consequence 
was a general supplication of the sen»te and people, that he 
would not abandon the republic, which he had saved from 
destruction. "Since it must be so (said he,) I accept the 
'^empire for ten years, unless the public tranquillity should be- 
" fore that time permit me to enjoy that retirement I passion- 
'-' ately long for." He repeated the same mockery five iimea 
in the course of his government, accepting the administra- 
tion sometimes for ten, and sometimes only for five years. 

3. It was much to the credit of Augustus, that in the gov- 
ernment of the empire he reposed unhmited confidence in 
Macasnas, a most able minister, who had sincerely a.t heart 
the interest and happiness of the people. It was hy his ex- 
cellent counsels that ail public affairs were conducted, and 
the most salutary laws enacted for the remedy of public 
grievances, and even the correction of the morals of the peo- 
ple. It was to his patronage that literature and the arts ow- 
ed their encouragement and advancement. It was by his 
influence and v^ise instructions that Augustus assumed those 
virtues to which his heart was a stranger, and which, in their 
tendency to the happiness of his subjects, were equally effec- 
tual as if the genuiue fruits of his nature. 

4. On the death of Marcellus, the nephew and son-in-law 
of Augustus, (23 B. C.) a prince of great hopes, the empe- 
^ov bestowed his chief favour on Marcus Agrippa; giving hin^ 

30* 



iO^ ANilBNt HlStOPtl". BART t, 

his daughter Julia, the widow of Marcellus, in marriage. — 
Agrippa had considerable miUtary talents, and was success- 
ful in accomplishing the reduction of Spain, and subduing 
the revolted provinces of Asia. Augustus associated him 
with himself in the office of censor, and v/ould probably 
have given him a share of the empire ; but the death of 
Agrippa occasioned a new arrangement. The daughter of 
Augustus now took for her third husband Tiberius, who be- 
came tlie son-in-law of the Emperor by a double tie, for Au- 
gustus had previously married his mother Livia. This art- 
ful woman, removing all of the imperial family who stood 
betAvixt her and the object of ambition, thus made room for 
the succession of her son Tiberius, who on his part, bent all 
his attention to sain the favour and confidence of Augustus. 
On the return of Tiberius from a successful campaign against 
the Germans, the people were made to solicit the Emperor 
to confer on him the government of the provinces and the 
command of the armies. Augustus now gradually with- 
drew himself from the cares of the empire. He died soon 
after at Nola in Campania, in the 76th year of his age, and 
44th of his imperial reign, A. U. C. 767, and A. D. 14. 

5. A considerable part of the lustre thrown on the reign 
of Augustus is owing to the splendid colouring bestowed on 
his character by the poets and other authors who adorned 
his court, and repaid his favours by their adulation. Assur- 
edly other sovereigns of much higher merits have been le?s 
fortunate in obtaining the applause of posterity : 



-Illacrymablles 



TJrgentur, ignolique longa 
Kocte, carent quia vate sacro. 

One great event distinguished the reign of Augustus, the 
birth of our Lord and Saviour Jesus Christ, which, accord- 
mg to the best authorities, happened in the 754th year A. U. 
C. and four years before the vulgar date of the Christian 
sera.* 

6. Augustus had named Tiberius his heir, together with 
his mother Livia, and substituted to them Drusus, the son of 
Tiberius, and Germanicus. Tiberius was vicious, debauch- 
ed, and cruel ; yet the very dread of his character operated 
in securing an easy succession to the empire. An embassy 
from the senate entreated him to accept the government, 
which he modestly affected to decline, but suffered himself 
to be won by their supplications. Notwithstanding this 

* Vide Dr. Piajiair's Sjstem of Chronology, p iO, 50, a work of great 
research acd aeeuraey, aod by tiav the ]i)est gn'lhat subject. 



SECT. 41. ANCIENT HISTORY. 107 

S3^mptom of moderation, it soon appeared that the power en- 
joyed by his predecessor was too limited for the ambition of 
Tiberius. It was not enough that the substance of the re- 
pubhc was gone, the very appearance of it was now to be 
demohshed. The people were no longer assembled, and 
the magistrates of the state were supplied by the imperial 
will. 

7. Germanicus, the nephew of Tiberius, became the ob- 
ject of his jealousy, from the glory he had acquired by his 
military exploits in Germany, and the high favour in which he 
stood with the Roman people. He was recalled in the midst 
of his successes, and dispatched to the oriental provinces, 
where he soon after died, as w^as generally believed, of poi- 
son, administered by the Emperor's command. 

8. -iElius Sejanus, prsefect of the praetorian guards, the fa- 
vourite counsellor of Tiberius, and the obsequious minister 
of his t3'ranny and crimes, conceived the daring project of a 
revolution, which should place himself on the throne, by the 
extermination of the whole imperial family. Drusus, the 
son of the Emperor, was cut oft" by poison. Agrippina, the 
widow of Germanicus, with the elder of her sons was ban- 
ished, and the younger confined to prison. Tiberius himself 
was persuaded by Sejanus, under the pretence of the discov- 
ery of plots for his assassination, to retire from Rome to the 
Isle of Capreae, and devolve the government upon his f dth- 
ful minister. But while Sejanus, thus flir successful, medita- 
ted the last step to the accomplishment of his wishes, by the 
murder of his sovereign, his treason was detected ; and the 
Emperor dispatched his mandate to the senate, which was 
followed by his immediate sentence and execution. The 
public indignation was not satisfied with his death : the pop- 
ulace tore his body to pieces, and flung it into the Tiber. 

9. Tiberius now became utterly negligent of the cares of 
government, and the imperial power was displayed only in 
public executions, confiscations, and scenes of cruelty and 
rapine. At length the tyrant, falling sick, was strangled in 
liis bed by Macro, the praefect of the praetorian guards, in 
the 78th year of his age, and 23d of his reign. 

10. In the 18th year of Tiberius, our Lord and Saviour 
Jesus Christ, the Divine Author of our religion, suffered 
death upon the cross, a sacrifice and propitiation for the 
sins of mankind, A. D. 33. 

11. Tiberius had nominated for his heir Caligula, the son 
of Germanicus, his grandson by adoption, and joined with 
him Tiberius, the son of Drusus, his grandson by blood. 
The former enjoyed, on his father's account, the favour of 



108 ANCIENT HISTORY. PART t. , 

the people ; and the senate, to gratify them, set aside the 
right of his colleague, and conferred on him the empire un- 
divided. The commencement of his reign was signalized 
by a few acts of clemency and even good policy. He re- 
stored the privileges of the comitia, and abolished arbitrary 
prosecutions for crimes of state. But, tyrannical and cruel 
by nature, he substituted military execution for legal punish- 
ment. The provinces were loaded with the most oppressive 
taxes, and daily conliscations filled the imperial coffers. The 
follies and absurdities of Caligula were equal to his vices, 
and it is hard to say whether he was most the object ol ha- 
tred or of contempt to his subjects. He perished by assas- 
sination in the 4th j^ear of his reign, and 29th of liis age^ 
A. U. C. 794, A. D. 42. 

12. Claudius, the uncle of Caligula, was saluted Emperor 
hy the praetorian guards, who had been the murderers of his 
nephew. He was the son of Octavia, the sister of Augustus ; 
a man of weak intellects, and of no education ; yet his short 
reign was marked by an enterprize of importance. He 
undertook the reduction of Britain ; and, after visiting the 
island in person, left his generals Plautius and Vespasian, to 
prosecute a war which vv^as carried on for several years vv-ith' 
various success. The Silures, or inhabitants of South Wales,, 
under their king Caractacus (Caradoc,) made a brave resist- 
ance, but were finally defeated, and Caractacus led captive 
to Rome, where the magnanimity of his demeanour procur- 
ed him respect and admiration. 

13. The civil administration of Claudius vras Vv'cak and 
contemptible. He was the slave even of his domestics, and 
the dupe of his infamous wives, Messalina and Agrippina. 
The former, abandoned to the most shameful profligacy, 
was at length put to death, on suspicion of treasonable de- 
signs. The latter, who was the daughter of Germanicus, 
bent her utmost endeavours to secure the succession to 
the empire to her son Domitius yEnobardus, and employed 
every engine of vice and inhumanity to remove the obsta- 
cles to the accomplishment of her wishes. Having at length 
prevailed on Claudius to adopt her son, and confer on him. 
the title of Csesar, to the exclusion of his own son Britan- 
nicus, she now made room for the immediate elevation of 
Domitius, hy poisoning her husband. Claudius was put to 
death ia the 15th year of his reign, and 63d of his age. 



.^E'QT. 42, ANGIENT HISTORY. 109 

XLII. 

1. The son of Agrippina assumed the name of Nero Clau- 
dius. He had enjoyed the benefit of a good education under 
the philosopher Seneca, but reaped from his instructions no 
other fruit than a pedantic affectation of taste and learnings 
with no real pretension to either. While controlled b}^ his 
tutor Seneca, and by Burrhus, captain of the praetorian 
guards, a man of worth and ability, Nero maintained for a 
short time a decency of public conduct ; but the restraint 
was intolerable, and nature soon broke out. His real cha- 
racter was a compound of ever}^ thing that is base and in- 
human. In the murder of his mother Agrippina, he reveng- 
ed the crime she had committed in raising him to the throne : 
he rewarded the fidelity of Burrhus by poisoning him ; and 
as a last kindness to his tutor Seneca, he allowed him to 
choose the mode of his death. It was his darling amusement 
to exhibit on the stage and amphitheatre as an actor, musi- 
cian, or gladiator. At length, become the object of univer- 
sal hatred and contempt, a rebellion of his subjects, headed 
by Vindex, an illustrious Gaul, hurled this monster from the 
throne. He had not courage to attempt resistance ; and a 
slave, at his own request, dispatched him with a dagger. 
Nero perished in the 30th year of his age, after a reign of 
fourteen years, A. D. 69. 

2. Galba, the successor of Nero, was of an ancient and 
illustrious family. He was in the 73d year of his age when 
the senate, ratifying the choice of the praetorian bands, pro- 
claimed him Emperor. But an impolitic rigour of disci- 
pline soon disgusted the army : the avarice of his disposition, 
grudging the populace their favourite games and spectacles, 
deprived him of their affections ; and some iniquitious pro- 
secutions and confiscations excited general discontent and 
mutiny. Galba adopted and designed for his successor the 
able and virtuous Piso ; a measure which excited the jealousy 
of Otho, his former favourite, and led him to form the daring 
plan of raising himself to the throne by the destruction of 
both. He found the praetorians apt to his purpose ; they 
proclaimed him Emperor, and presented him, as a grateful 
offering, the heads of Galba and Piso, who were slain in 
quelling the insurrection. Galba had reigned seven months. 
M&jor privato visus (says Tacitus) clum privatus fuit, et om- 
nium consensu capax imperii^ nisi imperasset. 

3. Otho had a formidable rival in Vitellius, who had been 
proclaimed Emperor by his army in Germany. It is hard 
to say which of the competitors was, in point of abilities, 



no ANCIENT HISTORY. PART t 

the more despicable, or in character the more infamous. A 
decisive battle was fought at Bedriacum, near Mantua, 
where the army of Otho was defeated, and their command- 
er, in a fit of despair, ended his life by his own hand, after 
a reign of three months, A. D. 70. 

4. The reign of Vitellius was of eight months duration. 
He is said to have proposed Nero for his model, and it was 
just that he should resemble him in his fate. Vespasian, who 
had obtained from Nero the charge of the war against the 
Jews, which he Iiad conducted with ability and success, was 
proclaimed Emperor by his troops in the East ; and a great 
part of Italy submitting to his generals, Vitellius meanly ca- 
pitulated to save his life, by a resignation of the empire. 
The people, indignant at his dastardly spirit compelled him 
to an effort of resistance, but the attempt was fruitless. Pris- 
cus, one of the generals of Vespasian, took possession of 
Rome, and Vitellius was massacred, and his body flung into 
the Tiber. 

5. Vespasian, though of mean descent, was worthy of the 
empire, and reigned with high popuhirity for ten years. He 
possessed great clemency of disposition ; his manners were 
affable and engaging, and his mode of life was characterized 
by simplicity and frugality. He respected the ancient forme 
ef the constitution, restored the senate to its deliberative 
rights, and acted by its authority in the administration of all 
public affairs. The only blemish in his character was a tinc- 
ture of avarice, and even that is greatly extenuated by the 
laudable and patriotic use which he made of his revenues. — 
Under his reign, and by the arms of his son Titus, was ter- 
minated the war against the Jews. They had been brought 
tinder the yoke of^ Rome by Pompey, who took Jerusalem. 
Under Augustus they were governed for some time by Herod 
as viceroy ; but the tyranny of his son Archelaus was the. 
cause of his banishment, and the reduction of Judaea into the 
ordinary condition of a Roman province. Rebelling on eve- 
3'y slight occasion, Nero had sent Vespasian to reduce them 
to order, and he had just prepared for the siege of Jerusa- 
lem, when he was called to Rome to assume the government 
of the empire. Titus wished to spare the city, and tried 
every means to prevail on the Jews to surrender : but in 
vain'; their ruin was decreed by Heaven. After an obstinate 
blockade of six months, Jerusalem was taken by storm, the 
temple burnt to ashes, and the city buried in ruins. — The 
Roman empire was now in profound peace. Vespasian as- 
sociated Titus in the imperial dignity, and soon after died 
^jaiversally iamentedj at the age of sixty-niaei A, D, 79. 



SCCT. 42. ANCIENT HISTORY. HI 

6. The character of Titus was humane, munificent, digni- 
fied, and splendid. His short reign was a period of great 
happiness and prosperity to the empire and his government 
a constant example of virtue, justice, and benelicence. In 
his time happened that dreadful eruption of Vesuvius which 
overwhelmed the cities of Herculaneum and Pompeii ; and 
the public losses from these calamaties he repaired by the sa- 
critice of his fortune and revenues. He died in the third 
3 ear of his reign, and fortieth of his age ; ever to be remem- 
bered by that most exalted epithet, Delicice humani generis. 

7. Domitian, the brother of Titus, and suspected of mur- 
dering him by poison, succeeded to the empire, A. D. 81. He 
was a vicious and inhuman tyrant. A rebellion in Germany 
gave him occasion to signalize the barbarity of his disposi- 
tion ; and its consequences were long felt in the sanguinary 
punishments intiicted under the pretence of justice. The 
prodigal and voluptuous spirit of this reign was a singular 
contrast to its tyranny and inhumanity. The people were 
loaded with insupportable taxes to furnish spectacles and 
games for their amusement. The successes of Agricola in 
Britain threw a lustre on the Roman arms, no part of which 
reiiected on the Emperor, for he used this eminent com- 
mander with the basest ingratitude. After fifteen tedious 
years, this monster fell at last the victim of assassination, 
the Empress herself conducting the plot for his murder. A, 
D. 96. 

8. Cocceius Nerva, a Cretan by birth, was chosen Empe- 
ror by the senate from respect to the virtues of his charac- 
ter ; but too old for the burden of government, and of a 
temper too placid for the restraint of rooted corruptions and 
enormities, his reign was weak, inefficient, and contemptible. 
His only act of real merit as a sovereign, was the auoptiofi 
of the virtuous Trajan as his successor. Nerva died, after 
a reign of sixteen months, A. D. 98. 

9. Ulpius Trajanus possessed every talent and every vir- 
tue that can adorn a sovereign. Of great military abilities, 
and an indefatigable spirit of enterprize he raised the Roman 
arms to their ancient splendour, and greatly enlarged the 
boundaries of the empire. He subdued the Dacians, con- 
quered the Parthians, and brought under subjection Assyria, 
Mesopotamia, and Arabia Felix. Nor was he less eminent 
in promoting the happiness of his subjects, and the internal 
prosperity of the empire. His largesses were humane and 
munificent. He was the friend and support of the virtuous 
indigent, and the liberal patron of every useful art and talent. 
$iis bounties were supphed by a well judged economy in his 



112 ANCIENT HISTORV. PARTI. 

private fortune, and a wise administration of the public iinan- 
ces. In his own life he was a man of simple manners, mo- 
dest, afl'able, fond of the funiliar intercourse of his friends, I 
and sensible to all the social and benevolent affections ; in 
a word, meriting the sirname universally bestowed on him, 
Trajanus Optiinus. He died at the age of sixty three, iifter 
a glorious reign of nineteen years, A. D. 118. 

10. ^lius Adrianus, nephew of Trajan, and worthy to fill 
his place, w is chosen Emperor by the army in the East, and 
his title was acknowledojed by all orders of the state. He 
adopted a policy different from that of his predecessor ; and 
judging the limits of tiie empire too extensive, abandoned all 
the conquests of Trajan, bounding the eastern provinces by 
the Euphrates, He visited in person the whole provinces of 
the empire, reforming, in his progress, all abuses, relieving 
his subjects of every op])ressive burden, rebuilding the ruin- 
ed cities, and establishing every where a regular and mild ad- 
ministration under magistrates of approved probity and hu- 
m^miiy. He gave a discliarge to the indigent debtors of the 
state, and appointed lil)eral institutions for the education 
of the children of the poor. To the talents of an able 
politician he joined an excellent taste in the liberal arts ; 
and his reign, which was of twenty-two years duration, was 
an a;ra both of public happiness and splendour. In the 
last year of his life he bequeathed to the empire a double 
legacy, in adopting and declaring for his immediate succes- 
sor Titus Aurelius Antoninus, and substituting Annius Verus j 
to succeed upon his death. These wcvv the Antonines, who ^ 
ibr forty years ruled tiie Roman empire with consummate 
wisdom, ability, and virtue. Adrian died; A. D. 1«J8, at the 
ase of sixtv-two. 



XLIII. 

"age of the antonines, &c. '^ 

1 . The happiest reigns furnish the fewest events for the 
]pen of history. Antoninus was the fatlier of his people. 
He preferred peace to the ambition of conquest ; yet in 
every necessary war the Roman arms had their wonted re- 
nown. The British province was enlnrLa^d by the conquests 
of Urbicus, and some formid 'ble rehollions were subdued 
in Germany, Dacia, and the F^ast. The domestic adminis- 
tration of the sovereign was dignitied, splendid, and humane. 



/ 



^ECT. 45» ANCIENT HISTORV. j U> 

With all the virtues of Numa, his love of religion, peace, 
and justice, he had the superior advantage of diffusing these 
blessings over a great portion of the world. He died at the 
age of seventy -four, after a reign of twenty-two years, A. D, 
161. 

2. Annius Verus assumed, at his accession, the name of 
Marcus Aurelius Antoninus, and he bestowed on his brother 
Lucius V^rus a joint administration of the empire. The 
former was as eminent for the worth and virtues of his cha- 
racter, as the latter was remarkable for profligacy, meanness, 
and vice. Marcus Aurelius was attached both by nature and 
education to the Stoical philosophy, which he has admirably 
taught and illustrated in his Meditations ; and his own life 
was the best commentary on his precepts. The Parthians 
were repulsed in an attack upon the empire, and a rebellion 
of the Germans was subdued. In these wars the mean and 
worthless Verus brought disgrace upon the Roman name in 
every region where he commanded ; but fortunately reliev- 
ed the empire of its fears by an early death. The residue 
of the reign of Marcus Aurelius was a continued blessing to 
his subjects. He reformed the internal policy of the state, 
regulated the government of the provinces, and visited him- 
self, for the purposes of beneficence, the most distant quar- 
ters of his dominions. " He appeared," says an ancient 
author, " like some benevolent deity, diffusing around him 
" universal peace and happiness." He died in Pannonia in 
the 59th year of his age, and 19th of his reign, A. D. 180. 

3. Commodus, his most unworthy son, succeeded to the 
empire on his death. He resembled in character his mother 
Faustina, a woman infamous for all manner of vice, but who 
yet had passed with her husband Marcus for a paragon of vir- 
tue. Commodus had an aversion to every rational and libe- 
ral pursuit, and a fond attachment to the sports of the cir- 
cus and amphitheatre, the hunting of wild beasts, and the 
combats of boxers and gladiators. The measures of this 
reign were as unimportant, as the character of the sovereign 
was contemptible. His concubine and some of his chief 
oflicers prevented their own destruction by assassinating the 
tyrant, in the 32d year of his age, and 13th of his reign, A. 
D. 193. 

4. The praetorian guards gave the empire to Publius Helvi- 
us Pertinax, a man of mean birth, but who had risen to esteem 
by his virtues and military talents. He applied himself with 
zeal to the correction of abuses ; but the austerity of his go- 
vernment deprived him of the affections of a corrupted peo- 
ple. He had disappointed the army of a promised reward ; 

U 



Ill ANCIENT HISTORV. FART 1. 

ami, after a reign of eighty-six days, was murdered iu the 
imperial palace by the same hands which had placed him on 
ihc throne. 

5. The empire ua:jnow put up to auction by the praetori- 
-ms, and was purchased by Didius Julianus ; while Pesceni- 
U3 Niger in Asia, Ciodius Albiiius in Britain, and Septimius 
Severus in Illyria, were each chosen Emperor by the troops 
they commanded. Severus marched to Home ; and'the prae- 
torians, on his approaclj, abandoned Didius, who had failed 
to pay the stipuhiied price for his elevation, and the senate 
formally deposed and put him to death. Severus, master of 
Rome, prepared to reduce the provinces which had acknow- 
ledged the sovereignty of Niger and Albinus ; and these two 
rivals being successively subdued, the one lost his life in bat- 
tle, and the other fell by his own hands. The administration 
of Severus uas wise and equitable, but tincttired witli despo- 
tic rigour. It was his j>urpose to erect the fabric of absolute 
monarchy, and all his institutions operated with able policy 
to that end. He possessetl eminent military talents ; and it 
was a glorious boast of his, that liaviiii:: received the empire 
oppressed with foreign and domestic wars, he left it in pro- 
found, universid, and bonourabh* peace, lie carried with 
him into Britain his iwo sons, Cararalla and Geta, whose 
unpromising dispositions clouded bis latter days. In this 
war the Caledonians imder Fiutial are ^aid to havt '-* "fed, 
on the l)anks of the Carron, ('aracuL the son of . - 4 of 
the world. Severus died at York, in the 6€th year oi his 
age, aller a reign of eighteen years, A. D. 211. 

G. The mutual liatr» d of ( 'aracalbi and Getii was increased 
by their association in the empire ; and the former, with bru- 
tal inhumanity, cau-^ed his brother to be openl . ; ^ --cA V, 
the arms of his mother. His reign, which w.t j- 

duration, and one continued series of atrocities, was at 
length terminated by a'*«a'^sination, A. D, 217. 

7. Tliosc disorders in the empire which begJiR with Com- 
modus^ continued for about a century, till the accession of 
Diocletian. That interval was tilled by tl i.s of Heli- 

ogabalus, Alexander Severus, iVIaximian, < 11, Decius, 

Gallup, VfllerianuR, Gallienus, Claudius, Aurelianus, Tacitus, 
Probu<, and Carus ; a period of which the annals furnish 
neither amusement nor useful informalion. The single ex- 
ception is the reign of Alexander Severus, a mild, benefi- 
cent, and enlightened prince whose ^ • ' 

more from the contrast of tho^e ubo j ■ .. v wd. .-:. ^....: 

him. 

&» Diocletian began his reign A. D. 284, and introduced a 



■'ECT. 43. li'CIENT HISTORY. 115 

new system of administration, dividing the empire into four 
governments, under a?> many princes. Maximian shared 
with him the title of Augustus, and Galerius and Constantiu? 
were declared Caesars. Each had his separate department 
or province, all nominally supreme, but in reality under the 
direction of the superior talents and authority of Diocletian ; 
:m unwise policy, which depended for its ethcacy on indivi- 
dual ability alone. Diocletian and M^iximian, trusting to the 
continuance of that order in the empire which their" vigour 
had established, retired from sovereignty, and left the gov- 
ernment in the liands of the Caesars ; but Constantius died 
soon alter in Britain, and his son Constantine was proclaim- 
ed Emjieror at York, thouu:h Galcrius did not acknowledge 
iiis title. Maximian, however, having once more resumed 
the purple, bestowed on Constantine his daughter in mar- 
riage, and thus invcslrd him with a double title to empire. 
On the death ol Maxinuan and Galcrius, Constantine had no 
other competitor than Maxentius the son of the former, and 
the contest betweon tbcnj w.is decided by the sword. Max- 
entius fell in battle and Constantino r'v^rnned sole master 
of the empire. 

9. The administration of Constantine was. in the bejfinning 
of »'•- ■ I-rn, n)ii(l. fMjuitable, and politic. Though ze ' ' 
at- !() the Christian fiitb, he mnde no violent i v 

tions on ihe religion of li^e state. He introduced order and 
ccoQomy into the civil government, and n)»rossed every 
species of oppression and corruption. P.ut bis natural tem- 
per was severe and cruel, and the latter part of his reign 
was as much deformed by intolerant z«*nl mul sanguinarv 
rigour, as the former had been rem irkible tor equity anil 
benignity. From this unfavourable change of cbaract(-r, he 
lost tho atfection< of his subjrrts : and from a feeling pro- 
bably of roriiJioral disjrust, he removed the seat of tlie Ho- 
man empire to Hyz:.ntium, now termed Constantinople. The 
Court followed the sovereii^n ; the ojnibMit proprietors were 
attended l)y tbeir slaves and retainers ;|Kome was in a few ' 
years greatly depoptilated, and the new capital swelled at 
once to enormous magnitude. It was characterized by east- 
ern splendour, luxury, and voluptuousness ; and the cities of 
Greece were despoiled for its embellishment. Of the inter- 
aal policy of the empire we shall treat in the next section.. 
In an expedition against the Persians, Constantine died at 
Nicomedia, in the .SOth year of his reign, and r..Sd of his 
age, A. 1). .S37. In the time of Constantine the (ioths had 
made several irruption on the empire, nn(\, tboujrb repulsed 
gnd beaten, beg-an gradually to encroach on the provinces. 



lit- A.VCIENT HISTOJIV. TA^I I. 

XLIV. 

, ATt OK THE ROMAN EMPIRL AT THE TIMH OF COKSTAX- 
TINE.r—HlS SUCCESSORS. 

1. In lieu of the ancient republican tUslinctions, which 
were lounded chiefly od personiil merit, a riu;ul subordination 
of rank and oflice now went through all the orders of the 
state. The magistrates were divided into three classes, dis- 
tingui^hod by the unrneaninjj title? of, 1. 'i'he Illustrious ; 
i. The Respectable ; :i. The CUtrissimi. The epithet of 
Illustrious was bestowed on, 1. 'J'he consuls and patricians ; 
The praetorian prjefects of Home and Con8UnUinoi)Ie ; 
>. The masters-general of the ravalrj^-end infantry ; 1. The 
seven nnnisters of thr palace. 'J'he cou'iuls were created by 
the sole authority of the Emperor : their diprnity was inefti- 
' " they had no :ippr«>priate function in the state, and their 
-ierved mdy to give the legal date to the year. The 
dignity ol patrician was not, as in ancient times, a hereditary 
distinction, but wa>* bc-towed, a'« a * ' f honour, by the 
Emperor on his liivourites. From i < ut the aboiition 

of the praetorian bands by Constantine, the dignity of preto- 
riiin juu I'ect was ctjnferred on thecivil govt I *"'' nr 

departments of the empire. Thehe wire, .la. 

Itidy. and the Gauls. They had|j^e supreme administration 
of ju-hce and of the finance?, the power of sui" ' all 

the inlt rior magistracies in their di«triri, and an a; , i\e 

jurisdiction from all its tribunaN. ludepentlent of their au- 
thority, Home and C !M)])le liad j-ach its own pralVct. 
who was the chiel h, .^. >..ac ul the city. In the .second 
class, the Ke».pectable, were the proconsul* of A-ia, Achain, 
and Africa, and the military romitrs an«l ' ^ ot 

the imperial iimiie*. 'J'he third class, (.1*;... . . .i.^re- 

bended the interior gov«'rnor** :md magntrntes of the provin- 
ces*, responsible to the prjcferts and their dejjuties. 

'2. The inleirourse between the court and provinces wa» 
maintained bv the con^lruction of road**, and the institution 
of regular posts or rourienj j under which denonunatioii were 
ranked the nnmberlcs'* spie«: of govenmHMit, whose duty was 
to conve> all >orl of intelligence from llie remotest fpiarters 
of the empire to its chief seat. Every institution was cal- 
culated to support the fabric of de«poti§m. Tortur* 

employed lor the discovery of crime-. 'I'iixes and in^ 
lions of every nature were prescribed and levied by the «oit^ 
authority of the Emperor. The (piantity and rate w;i " •" ' 
bv a '"'/iW/v- nri<lt^ over all the proviiire«?. and p^ut ^^ 



SEta. 'ii- ANCIENT HISTORV. 11^ 

nerallv P^id in money, ]Kirt in the produce of the kiids ; 
fl biirdeti frequently found ^o grievous as to prompt to the 
neglect of agriculture. Every object of merchandize and 
ma^nufarture was likewise highly taxed. Sul.-idies, moreo- 
ver, were exacted from all the cities; under the name of 
free gifts, on various occasions of public concern ; as the 
accession of an Kmperor, his consulate, the birth of a prince, 
a victory over the barbarians, or any other event of similar 

importance. 

3. An impolitic disUnrtiou w.is ni,«de between lu' ui-up-^ 
stationed m the distant provinces and those in the heart of 
the empire. The latter, tei-mcd Palatines, enjoyed a higher 
pay, and more peculiar favour, and haviii.; lesi employ- 
ment, spent their time in idleness and luxury ; while the for 
mer, termed the Borderers, who, in fact, had the care of the 
empire, and were exposed to y d hard service, iiad, 
with an inferior reward, the in i aiun of foelini; them- 
selves regarded as of meaner rank than their fellow ?oWiers. 
Constantine likewise from a timid policy of uuardi mst 
mutinies of the troops, reduced the legion from ii unt 
complement of 5000, tiOOO, 7000, and GOOO, to 1000 or 
1500, and «lebased the body of the army by the intermix- 
ture of Pcythians, Coths, and Germans. 

4. This immense mass of heterogeneous parts, which in- 
ternally laboured with the seeds of dissolution and corrup- 
tion was kept together {*>r some time by the vigorous 
exertion of despotic authority. The fabric was splendid 
and august ; but it wanted^ both that energy of constitution 
and t1 ' ' i»ity which m former times, it derived from 
theex' u.'roic an«l i)atriotic virtues. 

6. Constantine with a destructive policy, had divided the 
f .,, iiong tive princes, three of them his sons, and two 

n« ^ ; but Con-tantius, the youngest of the sons, finally 

, )t rid of all his competitors, and ruled the empire alone 
with ft wr.ik and impotent sceptre. A variety of domestic 
broils, and mutinies of th^ troops against their generals, had 
left the western frontier to the mercy of the barbarian na- 
tion^. The Franks, Saxons, Alenianni and Saimatians, laid 
>r i,te all the tine countries watered by the Kliine, and the 

ersians made dreadt'ul incursions on the provinces of the 

east. Constantius indolently wa>tcd his lime in theologi* ;i! 

'controversies, but was prevailed on to adopt orw prudent 

measure, the appointment of his cousin Julian to the dignity 

of Caesar. 

C. Jtilian pos-e«se«l m;my heroic qualities, and his luind 
\N as formed by iiaturc for the sovereignty of a great people ; 



1 1.J .vncil:iT iiisiui.\ ... 

Ijut tducatrd at Alliens in the schools ot the Platonic j»hilo- 
-ophy, he had unlortunatelv conceived a rooted antipathy to 
the doctrines of Christianity. With every talent of a gene- 
ral, and possessing the contideiice and aflertion of his troops, 
he once nior»? restored the i;lory of the Roman ainii?, and suc- 
cessfully repressed the inviisions of the barbarians. His vic- 
tories excited the jealousy of Constantius, who meanly re- 
solved to remove from his command the belter part of lus 
troops. The consccjuence Wiis a declaration of the army, 
that it was their choice that Julian should be llieir Lmperor. 
Constantius escaped the ij:;nonnny that awaited him by tlying 
at this critical juncture, and Julian was immediately acknow- 
l«d«5ed sovereign of ilie Roman empire. 

7. The relormation of ci\il abuses formed lln nt-i object 
of his attention ; vvhi<:h he next turned to the reformatioD, 
as he thought, of religion, by the suppression of Christianity. 
He be^an by reforming the Tiigan llieolog>', and sought to 
raise the character of its pnesls, by inculcating purity uf life 
and sanctity of moraU ; thus bearing involuntary testimony 
to the superior excellence, in those re-r * * •' * ^ '21 on 
which he lalioured to abolish. \Nilh*' ' . at- 

tacked the Christians by the more dangerous policy of treat- 
in;; them with contem|)t, and removing them, 
from all employments of public tru"- 1. He n i 
benefit of the laws to decide their ditTerences, because their 
relij^ion forbade all diHsensions ; and they were debarr»'d the 
studies of literature and pliilosophy, vvhich they couUl not 
learn but from Pagan authors. He was himseli as a Fiigao, 
the !*lave of the most biijoted »»i: . •' ^ 

anil augurie**, and fincymg hiiu .- - - i 

intercourse w ifli the nods and iroddesses. To dvcnce the in- 
juries vvhicli the eiii: ' . T . Jy. 

li.in manhed into Ih . .... .... iime 

in the train of conquest, when, in a fatal engagement, though 
crowned with victory, he was sUin, at the age of thirty-one, 
aficr a reign of three years, A. D. 3C3. 

8. The Roman army w;is di.*^pirited by the death of it0 
commander. They cho«*e for their enip« rur Jovian, a cap- 
tain of the domestic guards, and purchased u free retreat from 
the dominions of Persia by the ignominious surrender of rtve 
provinces, winch had been ceded by a fonner > » to 

Galeriu". The short reign of Jovi;r- " • ■'•; -m 

months, was mild imd equitiible. Jit 

uid restored its votaries to all their jtnvilcges as eubjects. 
He died >uddenly at the age of thirty-three. 

0. Vaieniimuii was chosea Eniperor by the army on the 



^ECT. 41. axciem history. 115 

death of Jovian ; a man of obscure birth, and severe man- 
ners, but of considerable military talents. He associated 
>vith himself in the empire his brother Valen.s, to whom he 
gave the dominion of the Cftstern provinces, reserving to 
himself the western. The Persians, under Sapor, were midi- 
ing inroads on the former, and the latter was subject to con- 
tinual invasion from the northern Barbarians. They were 
successfully repelled by V'alentiiiian in many battles ; and his 
domestic administration was wise, equitable, and politic. 
The Christian religion Wius favoured by the Kmperor, though 
not proinolt'd by the periecution of its adversaries ; a con- 
trast to the conduct ofhis brother Valens, who, intemperately 
supporting the Arian heresy, set the whole provinces in a 
flame, and drew a swarm of invaders upon the empire in the 
guise of friends and allies, who in the end entirely subverted 
it. These were the Goths, who, migrating from Srandinavia 
had, in the second century, settled on the hanks of the Palus 
Mxotis, and thence gradually extended their territory. In 
the reign of \';dens they took possessian of Daria, and were 
known by the distinct appellation of Ostrogoths and \'isigoths, 
or eastern and western Goths ; a remarkable people, and 
w^ose naanners, custom-*, govenmient, and laws, are aAer- 
wards t<^be particularly noted. 

10. Valentinian died on an expedition against the Ale- 
manni, and wils succeeded in the empire of the west by Gra- 
tian, his eldest son, a boy of sixteen years of age, A. D. 3G7. 
V;d«n?, in the east, was the scourge of his people. The 
Huoa, a new race of barbarians, of Tartar or Siiierian origin, 
now poured down on the provinces both of the west and 
east. The Goths, comparatively a civilized people, tied be- 
fore them. The Visigoths, who were firsl attacked, recjuest- 
ed protection from the empire, and Valens imprudently gave 
them a settlement in Thrace. The Ostrogoths made the 
same request, and on refusal, forced their way into the 
same province. Valens gave them battle at Adrianople ; 
his army was defeated, and he himself slain in the engage- 
ment. The Goths, unresisted, ravaged Achaia and Panoo- 
nia. 

11. Gratian, a prince of good dispositions, but of little en- 
rgy of character, assumed Theodosius as his colleague, 

•.vho. »Mi the early death of Gratian, an«l minority of his son 
\ alentiiiian 11. governed, with great ability, both tiie eastern 
ai^d western empire. The character of Theodosius, deserv- 
♦' " »d the Great, was worthy of the best ages of the 

?> He successfully repelled thu ennuachnKnts 

nans, and securtid; by wholesome laws, the prog- 



1£0 ANCIENT HISTORY . PART I 

pcrity of his people. lie die J, after a reic^ of eighteei» 
years, assiLjiiintj; to his soii<, Arcadius and Honorius, the se- 
parate Si)\ ercignties of east ami west. A. V. 3\)b. 



XLV 



. ROGRF.SS OF THE CHRISTIAN RELICIOJT, FROM ITS IWSTITl - 
TIOX TO THE EXTI.NlTIuN OF PAGANISM IN THE RCIGN O/ 
THEODOSIIS. 

1. The reign of Theodosius wns^ signalized hr the down 
fal of the Pagan •superslilion, and the full « t of 

the ChiijJlian religion in the Hornan empire. 1 ... .^.. .a re- 
volution of opiriious ifl highly >\oithy of attention, and natu- 
rally induce* a retro>*pert to the condition of the Christian 
church from iti» institution down to this period. 

It has heen frequently rem. irked, l)«M',iii«e it i* ?m obviout 
ruth, that the concurrence of circun time of 

our Siiviour's birth was such a**, wlui- i <.i ' •■ -: 

seemed to he then more peculiarly net'dfd, ; 
world was remarkably favourable for the cit 
nation of the doctrines it conveyed. The uni' n 
nations ufi<ler one power, and the extension of « 
were fivourahle to the progress of a religiou which prcscrib 
• i] uuivt I ' trity and hi . ' 

ion> oi i _ , rn, and its t- \ i i 

ifying the morals, contributed to explode its intluenre witl 
*\ery thinking miinl. Even thf pr : ' ' 

times, Epicurism, more easily un _. . 
nientsof the Pl.itoniMs, and more eratoftil than th 
of the Stoics, tended toilrj lure t«» 

the brute rreation. The L :;; i ..^lon, thu 

for the reform ition of the world, found its chief | 

in i\\o^v. who were the friends of vinne, and ..n- 

among the votarie<* of vice. 

'2. The persecution which the Christian** underwent fron* 
,A\\\^ has been deemed an • t of 

»..ir. .luon thoy showed to th' reJiL ^'it 

they were tolerating onlv totho^^e v <• .; 

hostile to their own. The religion of itii 
woven with their political constitution. i .m- •.« .u .m .i»» 
ChrisliiiHs, aiminsr, at the suppression of all idolatry, wh> not 
UDQatu rally rear^rded as dangerous to the state ; and hence 
they were the object ol hatred and persecution. In the fir*! 



c 



-LCT. 4.;. AX^IENT HISTORY. 121 

• eotury, the Christian church suffered deeply under Nero 
and Domitian ; yet those persecutions had no tendency 
•') check the progress of its doctrines. 

3. It i> a matter of question what was the form of the pri- 
miti\e church, and the nature of its g:overnment ; and on 
t' (1 much ditTerence of opinion obtains, not only be- 
f 'i«' Cuthohcs and Protestants, but between the difler- 
es of the latter, as the Lutherans and Calvinists. It 
it to moreover an opinion, that our Saviour and his apostles, 
onfminfij their precepts to the pure doctrines of rehgion, 
have Iftl all Christian societies to regulate their frame and 
^ • nt in the manner best suited to the civil constitu- 
♦i"M- M I'" iritries in which they are established. 

1. In ;. Mid century, the books of the New Testa- 

ment \(rere coltected into a volume by the elder fathers of 
i!;.' -' rrli, and rectivod a> a canon of faith. The Old 
1 ■ lit had been translated from the Ht'brew into (>rct'k, 

by order of Ptolemy Pluluhlplius, 'J;M years before Christ. 
The • :' ' ' ifTered nnh b from an absurd endeavour 
of til- 1 oi it>^ votaries to reconcile il^j doctrines 

* to the teoets of the Pai^an philosophers ; hence the sects of 
tl, '■ •• ' • - ',;md [' '" - ' ' 

'J I in tiic 

pi . I 'sonation*, and estaiilish general rules ol co- 

\« ' ' ' ■ ' lirs W ' . ' ' ■ 

^horttimc uperif »»1 Patriarch, pit 

siding over a la 4c tli?.lm;l ut tbo Chrif>U.iu \>()rM ; atui ;» -t:!> 
ordination t.ikmg plarr own tiniong tbr>^f, the Bishop ol 
Rome was acknowlt d;;(Ml the chief of the Patriarchs. Per- 
secution still attended the enrly cliurch, even umU'r those 
' excellent («i ;... n. I'rajan, Adrian, and the Antonines ; and 

* in the rei. rus, the whole provinces of the empire 
\' ued Willi tl I of the martyrs. 

Jd centurv ■• •■ •■•ore f ivourablc^ to th. j* - _i . -- .,. 
ity and the tranrpiiiiity of its disnplex. In those 
lime- ' ie«l loss from tbrrivil arm than from the pens 

of the r.ii; HI philosophers. Porphyry, Philo^trntus, Acc: but 
tbo'je attacks called forth the /cal and t. dents of many able 
, as Orii;ui, Di<>ny-ius, and Cyprian. A part of the 
VI I'll-., nermany, and Britain, received in thi^ century the 
light of the gospel. 

In the 1th century, the Christian church was aliernatc- 
•nited and cherished by the Koman Kmperors. — 
A' - oppriMsors we rank Diocletian, (Valerius, and Ju- 

uong Its favourer?; Con^tantine and his ions, Valen- 



1 \ 



22 ANCIENT HISTOHY. FART 1. 

iinicin, Valcns, Gratian, and the excellent Theodo^iu?, m 
whose reign the P;igan superstition came to it? final period. 
7. From the iige of' \unri to the reijtn of Gr:itian, the Ko- 
Dn;»n«» priserved the reeuiar <;uccejssion of the sev» "- «' ^ ... > - 
•lot :1 ( (dlcu^es, the Pontiffs, Aiii;»in», VestaU, Flai 
c. wlio^e authority, though weakened in the later a^vi^ 
.»»; -till protected by the law*. Even the Christian r- • - . 
i' held, like their Pagan pr« dece<5«*ors, the oificeol 
- ALixiiim^. (jritian was the tin<t who refti!«ed ' ' 
< icjit dicnity as a pn>fan:ition. In the time of T' m- 

the caiihe of Christianity and of Pagiinism WiUi 8v> _ «lr- 

hated in the Roman i^enate between Ambrose, nrchbisbop o 



Milan, the chanipion of the former, .ind S 
fciidLT ol the l.itter. The cause of Chri- ; - 

I'll Ml' and the senate isnueditA decree for the aboi f 

r • ' \ I fill ir» the cnpital ■\ . 1 

! .1 proviti'es. The 

permitted no persecution of the ancient i 
w hi ii p ' ^vith the more rapidity that its fall wa» gt mlc 

:'rtil uni' 

. . r i: lie Christian chuirh cihibited a t»uperAtitton in 

' ' lo<is irration il tli ' 
. ...J. i ...: . ;iJ ri'lirj, ; arul mail} 
(I in the precepts of «Mir Saviour and It 
i! -tlv borrowed from the Pairm schocdn. i'Ja* . \ 

1 1 j M it. .i.i i.'.iT ... ,iiK \ ^....11. I .> I. .\ ,. |.w1 i.t tl.f. , , 

cuttc morliticiition^, jivnance!*, and monai^tic srclu«iOD. 



\IA 1. 

EXTIJICTIOS OF THE ROM4N EMPIRE IV TIIK 

1. l\ the rei'^ns of Arcadius and Honoriii«;. the son« an<l 
-ucces«»or> of Theodo^ius, the bari)arinn nat d»Ii<«hed 

tin ni'tdve-i in tlw frontier provinr p* both ot [Iw oani and 
west. Theodor.i»i« had corainittr.l the government to Hufi- 
nus and Siilicho during the nonagi- of his uona ; and their fa- 
tal dissensions ^ave every n(h aiitage to the enemies of the 
emj)ire. The Huns, actually inriledby Hufmus, overspread 
Armenia, Cappadocia. and Syria. The fioths, under Alarir 
rav Jirod to ihebordrrs of Italy, and laid waste Ach.'i c 

Peloponnesus. Stilicho, an aide general, made a '^ •' -' 

jgainst these invaders ; but hi.* plan;- were fru«*ti 



5f:CT. 46. ANCIENT HISTORV. 123 

machinatioQS of his rivals, and the wciikness ol" Arcadius, 
who purchased an ignominious peace, by ceding lo Alaric the 
whole of Greece. 

2. Alaric, now styled King of the Visigoths, prepared to 
add Italy to his new dominions. He passed the Alps, and 
-' ^ carrying all before him, when, amused by the politic 

icho with the prospect of a new cession of territory, he 
was taken at unawares, and defeated by that general, then 
commanding the armies of Honorius, The Empt^ror trium- 
phantly celel)raled, on that occ;isio!i, the eternal defeat of 
the Gothic nation ; an eternity bounded by the lap«e of a 
few months. In this interval, a torrent of tlii' (loths l)reak- 
ing down upon ('Crmany, I'oneil llit* nations whum they dis- 
possessed, til' I, Alani, and \'iu)dals, to precipitate 
th^rn-elves upon lialy. 'i'hey joined tlieir arms to tho?e of 
Alaric, who, thus reinforced, determined to overwhelm 
liome. The policy of Stilicho made him change his pur- 
pose, on the promise of l' irid> \v<i'^lit of goKI : a prom- 
ise repeatedly broken b} i. -..iius, and its violation tmally 
revenged by Alaric, by the sack and plunder of th«» city, A. 
D. 410. With generoti- magnanimity, he was '>rthe 

lives of thf* vancjuished, and, wjlh fcini;ul.ir libet , ■ . .-pirit, 

anxioue to preserve every ancient editice from destruction. 

3. * pn paring now for the conquest of .^iAly and 
Africa, .... i. a this a;ra of his highest glory ; and Honorius, 
instead of profiling by this event to recover hi< lost provin- 
ces, made a treaty wilii his successor .\tai'i e him in 
marriage his sister Pbirulia, and secured his n n im^liip b\ ce- 
dinif to him a portion of Spain, while a great part of v\hat re- 
mained had before been occupied by the Vandals. He al- 
lowed soon after to the Burgnndians a just title to their con- 
quests in Gaul. Thus the wchtern empire was by degrees 
mouhicring from under the dominion of its ancient masters. 

4. In the ea?t, the mean and dissolute A ' ,' , ' m 
the year 408, leisina; tliat empire to hi-< iii, , >. 
»iu8U., whose sieterPulcheria swayed the sceptre with much 
pr 1 ' ' ' ' : ' •' ^. uuess of her brother al- 
lov - i (y years continuance. — 
IIonoriuH died m the year 423. The laws of Arcadius and 
Honorius are, with ;• irkable for their 

wisdom and equity ; . ^ . , i. a, considering the 

personal character of those princes, and evincing at least 
that they eni] ' ' ministers. 

6. The V .. . L- aseric, subdued the Roman 

proviocc in .\ The Huns, in the east, extended their 

conquests from ihc borders of China to the Baitic sea. t'n- 



124 ANCIENT UISTORV. lART I. 

der Attila they laid waste Moesia and Thrace ; and Theodo- 
sius II. after a mean attempt to murder the Barbarian gener- 
al, ingloriously submitted to pay him an annual tribute. It 
was in this crisis of universal decay, that tlie Britons implor- 
ed the Romans to defend them against the Picts and Scots, 
but received for answer, that they had nothing to bestow on 
them but compassion. The Britons, in despair, sought aid 
from the Saxons and Angles, who seized, as their property, 
the country they were invited to protect, and tbunded, in the 
6th and 6th centuries, the kindoms of the Saxon Heptar- 
chy. (See Part 11. Sect. XII. § 5.) 

6. Attila, with an army of 500,000 men, threatened the 
total destruction of the empire. lie was ably opposed by 
iEtitius, general of Valentinian HI. now Emperor of the 
West, who was himself shut up in Rome by the arms of the 
Barbarian, and at length compelled to j)urchase a peace. — 
On the death of Attila, his dominions were dismemi)ered by 
his sons, whose dissensions gave temporary relief to the 
falling empire. 

7. After Valentinian HI. we have in the West a succession 
of princes, or rather names ; for the events of their reigns 
merit no detail. In the reign of Romuhis, sirnamed Augus- 
tulus, the son of Orestes, the empire of the West came to a 
6nal period. Odoacer, prince of the Jleruli, subdued Italy, 
and spared the life of Augustulus, on the condition of his 
resigning the throne, A. D. 476. From the building of 
Rome to this aera, the extinction of the Western Empire, is 
a period of 1224 years. 

8. We may reduce to one ultimate cause the various cir- 
cumstances that produced the decline and fall of this once 
magnificent fabric. The ruin of the Roman empire was the 
inevitable consequence of its greatness. The extension of 
its dominion relaxed the vigour of its frame : the vices of 
the conquered nations infected the victorious legions. and for- 
eign luxuries corrupted their commanders ; selfish interest 
supplanted the patriotic affection ; the martial spirit was pur- 
posely debased by the emperors, who dreaded its effects on 
their own power ; and the whole m;iss, thus weakened and 
enervated, fell an easy prey to the torrent of Barbarians 
which overwhelmed it. 

9. The Herulian dominion in Italy was of short duration. 
Theodoric, prince of the Ostrogoths (afterwards deservedly 
sirnamed the Great,) obtained permission of Zeno, Emperor 
of the East, to attempt the recovery of Italy, and a promise 
of its sovereignty as the reward of his success. The whole 
nation of the Ostrogoths attended the standard of their 



SECT. 46. ANCIENT HISTORY. 12^ 

prince ; and Theodoric, victorious in repeated engao-ements. 
at length compelled Odoacer to surrender all Italy to the 
conqueror. The Romans had tasted ot^ happiness under the 
government of Odoacer, and it was increased under the do- 
minion of Theodoric, who possessed every talent and virtue 
of a sovereign. Iii»? equity and clemency rendered him a 
blessing to his subjects : he allied himself with all the sur- 
rounding nations, the Franks, Visigoths, Burgundians, and 
Vandals ; and he loft a peaceable S'-eptre to his grandson 
Aliialaric, during whose infmcy his mother Amalasonte gov- 
erned with such admirable wisdom and moderation, as left 
her subjects no real cause of regret for tlie loss of her father. 

10. While such was the state of Gothic Italy, the empire 
of the East was under the government of Justinian, a prince 
of mean ability, vluu, capricious, and tyrannical. Yet the 
Roman name rose lor a while from its abasement by the 
merit of his generals. Belisarius was the support of his 
throne, yet to him he behaved with the most shocking in- 
gratitude. The Per^iau'^ were at tiiis time the most formi- 
dable enemies of the empire, under their sovereigns Cabades 
and Cosrhoes ; and from the latter, a most able prince, Jus- 
tinian meanly purchased a peace, by a ses"?ion of territory, 
and an enormous tribute in gold. The civil tactions of Con- 
stantinople, ari.-ing from the most contemptible of causes, 
the (b.^putes of the pei formers in the circus an<l amphithea- 
tre, tlireatened to hurl Justinian from the throne, had they 
not been fortunately composed by the arms and the policy 
of Belisarius. This great general overrvbclmed the Vandal 
sovereignty of Africa, and recovered that province to the 
empire, lie %»'rested Italy from its Gothic sovereign, and 
once more restored it for a short spnrc (o the dominion of 
its ancient masters. 

1 1. Italy was once more subdued by tlw: Gotlis" under the 
heroic Totila, who beseiged anil took the city of Rome, but 
forebore t| destroy it at the request of Belisarius. The for- 
tunes of this great man were now in the wane. He was com- 
pelled to evacuate Italy ; and, on his return to Constantino- 
]de, his long services were repaid with disgrace. He was 
superseded in the -id of the armies by the eunuch Nar- 
ses, who del'eatcii -l ^ ; . i in a decisive engaf:;ement, in which 
the Gothic prince was slain. Narscs governed Italy with 
great ability for thirteen years, when he was uiigratefully re- 
called by Justin 11. the successor of Justinian. He invited 
the Lombards to avenge his injuries ; and this new tribe of 
invaders overran and conquered the countrv, A. D, 568. 

V2 



A.Wir.XT HISTORY. PART 1. 

Ai.\ li. 

05" THK ORIGIN, MAX.VKRS, AND ( HARACTER OF THE GOTHIC 
NATIONS, BKFORE THEIK ESTABLISHMENT IN THE ROMAN 
EMFIili:. 

1. Thf. history ami uianiior? of'tlir Gothic nations are cu- 
liou- objects of cfiq»iir\, from ihcii iiitluencc on tlic constitu- 
tions and. national character of most of llie modern kinmloms 
of Euro|>e. As the present inhabitants of these kingdoms 
are a mixed ra«c, coini)«nuidcd of the Goths and of the na- 
tions whom they subdued, tlie law*, D)annei*s, and inj-ilitutionn 
of the modern kingdoms uri' the result of this conjunc lion ; 
and in so far as these are difl'erent frinn tiic usages pre\alent 
before this intermixture, they are in all probability, to be 
traced from the ancient manners and inplilutions of those 
northern tribes. We juirpose to consiiler, 1. 'I he original 
ch;»racterof the Gothic nations ; and, '2. The change of their 
in inn<^rs on their establishment i'.i the Roman empire. 

2. Tlie Scandin.iN ian <luonirle« utUibut*; to the ancient 
(habitants of that country an Asiatic origin, and inform us 

that the (iolhs ncrc a colony of Scythians, who nngrated 
thilherfrom the banks of tlie Hlark Sea and the Caspian : 
but these chronicles do not fix the period of this migration, 
which somi' Liter wriler-? stippo-e to have been lUOt>yeari», 
unil others only Tt), belorc the Christian a*ra. Odin, the 
chief deity of the Scandinavians, was the god of the Scythi- 
ans. Sigg;i, a Scythian priiue, is said to have tindertaken a 
distant expedition ; and, alter suinluiog several of the Sarma- 
tian tribes, to have penetrated inio the noitikern parts of 
(iermiMiy, lu.d thi-nce into ScandinaN ia. He rtfsumed the 
hoiKHirs of di\ii)ily, and the title of Odin his national god. 
I!e conquered Peianark, Sweden, and Norway, aiul gJivc 
wi^' and salutary laws to the nations he had subdued by hit) 
;irm.«. .«' 

:•. rhe agreement in manners between the Scythians ami 
tlie ancient Scandinavian nations i )rrt)borative ot 

the account^ given in the northern ..;,,..> ., uf the identity 
of their orii^in. The deticription dfthc maimers of (he Ger- 
mans by Tacilus (thotigh this people was i>robably not <>! 
iScythian, but of Celtic origin) may in many particulars, Le 
apj>lied to the ancient nations of Scamlinavia ; and the same 
d(.*-^cription coincides remarkably with the account gi\ eu by 
Herodotus of the manners of the ScMhians. Their life was 
-pent in hunting, pa.sturage, and predatory war. Their diesj, 
*heJr weapon*, their food thcicrespect for their women, thei" 



Si:rT. J7. AN's^itLNT IIISTOIIV. Ij 

relit^iou^ worship, were the same. They despiyed lenrnins;. 
and li.id no other records for nnny n:;es than the sonss ol" 
their hards. 

4. The theolojjy of ihe Scaiuhnavian^, wa^ mo-i iniim.ue- 
ly connected witli their niiuiners. They held three great 
principles or fundamental doctrines of religion : *' To serve 
" the Supreme Beino; with prayer and sarrilice ; to do no 
" wrong or unjust action ; and to be intrepid in ti;;ht.'" — 
These principles are the key to the Edda, or sacred hook ol 
the Scandinavians, which, thoui^h it contains the substance 
of a very ancient reli.:;ion, is not itself a work of higli anti- 
quity, being compiled in the thirteenth century by Snorro 
Sturlc'^on, supreme judi^e of Ireland. Odin, characterised 
as the Terrible and Severe God, tlie Father of Carnage, the 
Avenger, is the principal deity of the Scandinavians ; from 
who*:e union with Frea, the heiivenly motlier, sprung various 
subordinate divinities ; as Tlior, who perpetually wars 
:i£jainst Loke and his tvil giants, who envy the ]»ower of 
Odin, and seek to destroy hi;^ work*. Amonir the inferior 
deities are the Virgins of the Valhalla, whose ol"hce is to min' 
ister to the heroes in paradise. The favourites of Odin are 
all who die in bailie, or, what is equally meritorious, by their 
own hand. The timid wretch, who allows himself to perish 
by disease or age, is unworthy of the joys of paradise. — 
These joys are, lighting, ceaseless slniightcr, and drinkin;^ 
beer out of the skulls of their enemies, with a renovation of 
life, to furnish a perpetuity of the same pleasures. 

1^. As the Sr u^s believed this irorhl to be the 

>vork of some Si^. n i inielligences, i-o lljey held all nature. 
to be constantly under the regulation of an almighiy will and 
power, and subject lo a lixed and unalterable destiny. — 
These notions had a wonderful elTcrt on the national man 
ners, and on the conduct of individuals. The Scandinavian 
placed his sole dcli'^ht in war : be entertained a;^ absolute 
contempt of danger and of death, and his glory was islima 
ted by tiie uuiabcr he ii.ul shin in battl(\ 'J'lie death-soij« 
of Regncr l.odbrok^ who comforts himself in Jiis hist agonies 
by recounting nlHhe acts of carn-'j^e he had ( ummittotl ii> 
lus lifelimf^, i- a fr.ilhful picture ol \\v^ Sc.■.ndlaa^ Ian char- 
acter. 

('. We ba\e rcir.aikcd tiie sirai 'iiiiuaiii\ ui inc manners 
of the Scandinavians and tho.^e ol the ancient Cierni.in-. — 
These nations seem, however, to have had a different origin. 
The (icrmin", as well as the Gauls, wore branches of that 
great orisfinal nation termed CcUa-, wlio inhabited most o^ 
l! tries of Europe to the south of the Baltic, beforr 



128 AXCIEXT HISTORY. PAIVT 

lliey were invaded by the northern tribe? from Scandin:i\ in. 
The CeUa3 were all of the Dniidiciil religion ; a system 
which, though different from the belief and worship of the 
Scaiidina\ians, is founded nearly on the same principles ; 
aud the Goths, in their progress^, intermixing with the Uer- 
mans, could not tail to adopt, in part, the notions of a kind- 
jred religion. Druidism acknowledged a God that delighted 
irj Idoodfihed ; it taught the immortality of tljc soul, and in- 
culcated the contempt of danger and of death : Ignavum re- 
diiuroE parcere vitit. Tacitus rem irks of the ancient Ger- 
mans, that they had neither temples nor idols. 1 he open 
air was the temple of the divinity, and a consecrated grove 
the appropriated place for prayer and sacrifice, which none 
but the priests were allowed to enter. The chief sacrifices 
were human victims, most probably the prisoners taken in 
war. Tlie Druids heightened the sanctity of tlu'ir rharactey 
Ijy concealing tlie mysteries of their worship. They had the 
highest inlbicncc over the minds of the people, and thus 
found it easy to conjoin a civil authority with the sacerdotal ; 
a policy which in the end led to the destruction of the Druid- 
ical system ; for the Romans found no other way of securing 
t.heii* conquests over any of tlie Celtic nations, than by ex- 
terminating the Druids. 

7. AVhatever diflerence of manners there may have been 
among the various nations or tribes of Gothic origin, the 
great teatures of their character appear to have been the 
same. Nature, education, and prevailing habits, all concur- 
red to form them for an intrepid and conquering people. 
Their bodily frame invigorated by the climate they inhahited, 
rvcr iuured to danger and latigue, war their habitual occupa- 
tion, believing in an unalternble destiny, and taught by their 
religion, that a heroic sacrifice of life gave certain assurance 
of etorn:d happiness ; how could a rare »»f men so charac- 

rized ful to be the conquerors of the world ' 



\LVIU. 

OF THE MANNERS, LAW-S, AND GOVERNMENT OF THE COTIIK 
NATIONS, AFTER THEIR ESTABLISHMENT IN THE ROMAN 
EMPIRE. 

I. It has been erroneously imagined, that the same fero- 
ity of manners which distinguished tiie Goths in their ori- 
ginal scats, attended their successors io their new establish 



51 CT. 45. AS-CIENT HISTORy. 129^ 

ments in the provinces of the Roman empire. Modern 
authors have given a currency to this false idea. Voltaire, 
in describing the middle ages, paints the Goths in all the cha- 
racters of horror ; as " a troop of huuii^ry wolves, foxes, and 
** tigers, driving before them the scattered timid herds, and 
" involving all in rnin and desolation." The accounts of 
historians most worthy of credit will dissipate tliis injurious 
prejudice, and show these northern nations in a more fa- 
vourable point of view, as not unworthy to be the successors 
of the Romans. 

2. Before their settlement in the southern provinces of 
Europe, the Goths were no longer idolaters, but Christians ;, 
and their morality was suitable to tiie religion the}' professed. 
Salvianus, Bishop of Marseilles, in the fifth century, draws, 
a parallel between their manners juid those of the Romans, 
hi;;lily to the credit of the former. Grotius, in his publica- 
tion of Procopius and Jornandes, remarks, as a strong testi- 
mony to their honourable character as a nation, that no 
province once subdued by the Goths ever voluntarily with- 
drew itself from their governmeijt. 

3. It is not possible to produce a more beautitul picture ot 
an excellent adminisfn.rion than that of the Gothic monar- 
chy in Italy under Theodoric the Great. Although master 
of the country by confjuesi, he was regarded by his subject?, 
with the affection ol" a native sovereign. He retained the 
Roman laws, and as nearly as possible the ancient political 
res;ulations. In supply iug all civil olhces of sUite, he prefer- 
red the native Rom:ins. It was his care to preserve every 
monument of the ancient grande jr of the empire, and to 
embellish the cities by new works of beauty and utility. In 
the imposition and levying of t-jxes, he showed the most 
humane indulgenre, on every occasion of scarcity or cala- 
mity. I lis laws were dictated by the most enliglUened pru- 
dence and benevolence, and framed on that })riiiciple which 
he nobly inculcated in his instructions to the Roman senate, 
" Bc/u'gni prinripis^ est^ nnn tmn ciclirta relle punirc, guam 
" iollcre."' The historians of the times delight in recounting 
the examples of his muniticcnre iuid hum;mity. Partial as 
he was to the Arian heresy, many even of the Catholic Fa- 
thers have done the most ample justice to his merits, ac- 
knowledging that, under his reign, the church enjoyed a 
high measure of prosperity. Such vva«! Theodoric the Great, 
who is justly termed by Sidonius ApoUinaris, Romance decus 
colutnenque gentis. 

4. ivvit a single example cciild not warrant a general infer- 
ence with regurd to the merits of _> whole people. The ex- 

12* 



130 ANCIENT mSTORy. PART I, 

ample of Theodoric is not single. If it does not find a com- 
plete pandlei, it is at least nearl^y approached to in the si- 
milar ch inictcrs of Alaric, Amalasonte, and Tolila. A!a- 
ric, compelled by his enemy's breach of faith to revenge 
himself b} the sack of Rome, showed even in that revenge 
a noble example of humanity. No blood was shod without 
necessity ; the ciiurches were inviolable asylums ; the ho- 
nour of the women was preserved ; the treasures of the city 
were saved from plunder. Amalasonte, the dauirhter of 
Theodoric, repaired to her subje( ts the loss of her lather, 
by the equity and wisdom of her administration. She train- 
ed her son to the study of literature and of every polite 
accomplishment, as the best means of reformiug and enlit^ht- 
ening his people. Totila, twice master of Home which he 
won by his arms after an ol)stiiiate resistance, imitated the 
example of Alaric in his clemency to the van(piished, and 
m his care to preserve every remnant of ancient magniti- 
lence from destruction He restored the senate to its au- 
thority ; he adorned liome uilli uselul edilices, regulated its 
mternal policy, and took a noble pride in reviving the splen- 
dour and diu;inty of the empire. Ilith'taxit cum Roinani's, 
■^ays a cotemporary author, tiUKjuam juifer cninfiliis. 

5. The stem of the Gothic nation divided itself into two 
ij^reat branches, the Ostroiroths, who remained in Paruionia, 
a[id the Westrogotiis or \ isi^oths, so termed tVom their mi- 
j^rating thence to the west of Kurope. Italy was possessed 
by the latter umler Alarir, and by the former under Theo- 
doric. The Visigoths, aller the death of Alaric, withdrew 
into Gaul, and obtained from Honorius the province ofAqui- 
taine, of v.b.irh Tl)o»dt)u«;e was the capital. Wiu-n expelled 
from that proviin e by the Frariks, they crossscd the Pyre- 
nees, and, settling in Spain, made Toledo the capital of their 
kingdom. The race «)f the \ isigoth jirinces was terme«l the 

Haiti, as that of the Ostroi;oths. tlie .Imuli. The Ostrogoths 
enforced in their dominions the observance of the Roman 
laws : the Visigoths adhered to a rode compiled by their 
own sovereigns, and founded on the ancient manners and 
upages of their nations. From this code, therefore, we may 
derive much intbrmation relative to the genius and character 

of this ancient people. 

G. It is enacted by the La-xs of the P'isi^oths that no judge 

-hall decide in any law-suit, unless he tinds in that book a 

law ajtplicable to the ca«e. All causes that fall not under this 

description are reserved for the decision of the sovereign. 

The penal laws are severe, but tempered with great equity. 

^o punijhment cun aiTect tJic heirs of the criminal : omnia 



SECT. 48. aptciCnt iirsTORy. 131 

crimina suos sequantvr aitctores — ille solus judicctur culpabi- 
lis qui culpanda commiserit, et crimen cum illo qui fecerit mo- 
riatur. Death was the punishment of the murder of a free- 
man, and perpetual infamy of the murder of a shive. — 
Pecuniary tines were enacted tor various subordinate offen- 
ces, according to their measure of criminahty. — An adulterer 
was delivered in bondage to tfce injured husband ; and the 
free woman who had committed adiltery with a married 
man, became the slave of his wife. — No physician was al- 
lowed to visit a female patient, but in the pj-esence of her 
nearest kindred. — The Lex tnlionis was in great observance 
for such injuries as admitted of it. It was even carried so 
far, that the incendiary of a house was burnt alive. — The tri- 
als by judicial combat, by ordeal, and by the judgment of 
God, which were in frequent use among the Franks and Nor- 
mans, had no place among the Visigoths. — Montesquieu has 
erroneously asserted, that in all the Gothic nations it was 
usual to judge the litigants by the law of their own country ; 
the Roman by the Roman law, the Frank by that of the 
Franks, the Aleman by that of the Alemans. On the con- 
trary, the Visigoth code prohibits the laws of all other na- 
tions within the territories of that people ; .\'olu/ni(s sive 
Romanis legibus^ sive alienis insiitutionihus^ amplius conreva- 
ri. The laws of the Franks and Lombards are remarkable 
for their wisdom and judicious polic}'. 

7. The government of the Goths, after their settlement in 
ihe Roman provinces, wi\s monarchical; and, at first elective, 
became afterwards hereditary ; the sovereign on his death- 
bed appointing his successor, with the advice or consent of 
his grandees. Illegitimacy did not disqualify from succession 
or nomination to the throne. 

8. The Dukes and Counts were the chief ofiicers under 
the Gothic government. The Duke {Dux cxercitus) wa< the 
commander in chief of the troops of the province ; the 
Count [Comes) was the highest civil mngistrate ; but these 
oflicers frequently intermixed their fimctions ; the Count be- 
ing empowered, on sudden emergencies, to assume a military 
command, and the Duke, on some occasions, warranted to 
exercise judicial authority. In general, however, thrir 
departments were distinct. Of Comites there were various 
orders, with distinct official powers ; as, Conies cubiculi, 
Chamberlain ; Comcsstabuli, Constable, &c. These vari- 
ous officers were the proceres or grandees of the king- 
dom, by whose advice the sovereign conducted himself in 
important matters of government, or in the nomination of 
his successor j but wc do not find that they had a voice in 



132 ANCIENT HISTORr. TAnX I 

the framing of laws, or in the imposition of taxes ; and the 
prince himself had the sole nomination to all offices of go- 
vernment, magistracies, and dignities. 



XLIX. 



MLTIIOD OF STUDVING ANCIENT HISTORY. 

1. A GENERAL and concise view of ancient history may 
1)0 acquired by the perusal of a very few books ; as that 
part of the Cuvrs (P Etude of the Abbe Condillac which re- 
gards the history oftlic nations of aiitiqnity ; the Elements 
of General History by the Abbe Millot, part 1. ; the Epitome 
of Turselline, with the notes of L'Agneau, part 1. ; or the 
excellent Comijcudiuia Jh'storiir Universalis, by Professor 
OfTerhaiis of Groningen, The two first of these works have 
Ibe merit of uniting a spirit of retlection with a judicious se- 
lection of events. The notes of I/Agneau to the Epitome 
of Turselline, contain a great store of geographical and bi- 
ographical information ; and the work of Oti'erhaus is pecu- 
liary valuable, as uniting sacred with jirollme history, and 
' ontaining most ample references to the ancient authors. 
J'hc Disrours sur V Ilistoire Univcrselle, b}' the Bishop of 
Ueiiux, though a work of high merit, is rather useful to those 
\, ho have already studied history in detail, for uniting in the 
;;iiiKl the great current of events, and recalling to the memo- 
ry their order and connexion, than fitted to convey infor- 
mation to the uninstructed. 

But the student who wishes to derive the most complete 
advantage from history, must not confine hiniself to such 
;i;eDoral or compendious views ; he must resort to the ori- 
ginal historians of ancient times, and the m.odern writers who 
have treated v^ith amplitude of particular periods. It may 
1)0 useful to such students to point out the order in which 
iliose hirtlorians maybe most profitably perused. 

2. Next to the historical books of the Old Testament, the 
most ancient history worthy of perusal is that of Herodotus, 
which comprehends the annals of Lydia, Ionia, Lycia, 
Esiypt, Persia, Greece, and Macedonia, daring above 230 
years preceding 479 B. C. 

Book 1. contains the History of Lydia from Gyges to Croe- 
sus : Ancient Ionia ; Manners of the Persians, Babylorfiaos,. 
&c ; History of Cyrus the Eider. 



SECT. 49. ANCIENT HISTORY. 133 

B. 2. History of Egypt, and Manners of the Egyptians. 

B. 3. History of Cambyses. — Persian Monarchy under 
Darius Hystaspes. 

B. 4. History of Scythia. 

B. 5. Persian Embassy to Macedon ; Athens, Lacedaemon, 
Corinth, at the same period. 

B. 6. Kings of Lacedaemon. — War of PersiaagainstGreece, 
to the battle of Marathon. 

B. 7. The same war, to the battle of Thermopylap. 

B. 8. The naval battle of Salamis. 

B. 9. The defeat and expulsion of the Persians from 
Greece. 

(The merits of Herodotus are shortly characterized supra. 
Sect. XXII. § I.) 

3. A more particular account of the periods treated by 
Herodotus may be found in Justin, hb. 1, 2, 3, and 7 ; the 
C^ropaedia of Xenophon ; the lives of Aristides, Themisto- 
cles, Cimon, Miltiades, and Pausanias, written by Plutarch 
and Cornelius Nepos ; and those of Anaximander, Zeno, 
Empedocles, Herachtus, and Democritus, by Diogenes La- 
ertius. 

4. The Grecian History is taken up by Thucydides from 
the period where Herodotus ends, and is continued for se- 
venty years, to the twenty-lirst of the Peloponnesian war. 
(This work characterized, Sect. XXII. ^ 2.) The period he 
ireats of is more amply illustrated by perusing the 1 1th and 
12th books of Diodorus Siculus ; the lives of Alcibiades, 
Chabrias, Thrasybulus, and Lysias, by Plutarch and Nepos ; 
the 2d, 3d, Ith, and 5th books of Justin, and 14th and 15th 
chapters of the tirst book of Orosius. 

'^ 6. Next to Thucydides, the student ought to peruse the 
1st and 2d books of Xenophon's flistory of Greece, which 
comprehends the narrative of the Peloponnesian war, with 
the cotemporary history of the Medes and Persians ; then 
the expedition of Cyrus {Anabasis) and the continuation of 
the history to its conclusion with the battle of Mantinea. 
(Xenophon characterized. Sect. XXII. § 3.) For illustrat- 
ing this period, we have the lives of Lysander, Agesilaus, 
Artaxerxes, Conon, and Dat^mes, by Plutarch and Nepos ; 
the 4th, 5th, and Gth books of Justin, and the 13th and 14th 
of Diodorus Siculus. 

6. After Xenophon, let the student read the 15lh and 
16th books of Diodorus, which contain the history of Greece 
and Persia, from the battle of Mantinea, to the reign of Alex- 
ander the Great. (Diodorus characterized. Sect. XXII. 
§ 5.) To complete this period, let him read the lives of Di' 



134 ANCIENT HISTORY. PART I. 

on, Iphicrates, Timotheus, Phocion, and Timoleon, bj Ne- 
pos. 

7. For the history of Alexander the Great, we have the 
admirable works of Arrian and Qiiintus Curtius, (the former 
characterized, Sect. XXII. § 8.) Curtius possesses great 
judgment in the selection of facts, with much elegance and 
perspicuity of diction. He is a good moralist and a good 
patriot ; but his passion for embellishnient derogates from 
the purity of history, and renders his authority suspicious. 

8. For the continuation of the history of Greece from the 
death of Alexander, we have the 18th, 19th, and 2()th books 
of Diodorus ; and the history of Justin from the 13th book 
downwards ; together with the lives of the principal person- 
ages, written b}'^ Plutarch. The histor}' of Justin is a most 
judicious abridgment of a much larger work by Trojus 
Pompeius, which is lost. Justin excels in the delineation of 
characters, and in purity of style. 

9. I have mentioned the lives of Plutarch and Cornelius 
Nepos as the best supplement to the account of particular 
periods of ancient history. It is the highest praise of Plu- 
tarch, that his writings breathe the most admirable morality, 
and furnish the most instructive lessons of active virtue. He 
mtkes us familiarly acquainted with the great men of anti- 
quity, and chiefly delights in painting their private character 
and manners. The short lives written by Nepos show great 
judgment, and a most happy selection of such facts as display 
the genius and character of his heroes. They are written 
likewise with great purity and elegance. 

10. For the Roman history in its early periods, we have, 
first, the Antiquities of Dionysius of Halicarnassus, which 
bring down the history of Rome to 412 A. U. C. They are 
chiefly valuable, as illustrating the manners and customs, 
the rites, civil and religious, and the laws of the R,oman state. 
But the writer is too apt to frame hypotheses, and give views 
mstead of narratives. We look for these in the modern 
writers who treat of ancient times, but we cannot tolerate 
them in the sources of history. 

11. The work of Livy is infinitely more valuable ; a per- 
fect model of history, both as to matter and composition, 
(characterized Sect. XXXVI. § 10.) Of 132 books, we 
have only remaining 35, and these interrupted by a con- 
itiderable chasm. The first decade (or ten books) treats of 
a period of 460 years ; the second decade, containing seven- 
ty-five years, is lost ; the third contains the second Punic 
war, including eighteen years ; the fourth contains the war 
against Phihp of Macedon, and the Asiatic war against Anti 



5ECT. 49. ANCIEXT HISTORY. 135' 

ochus, a space of twenty-three years ; of the fifth decade 
there are only tive books ; and the remainder, which reaches 
to the death of Driisns, 746 A. U. C. has, together with 
the second decade, been supphed by Freinshemius. To 
supply the chasm of the second decade, the student ought 
to read, together with the epitome of those lost books^ the 
first and second books of Poly bins ; the 17th, 18th, 22d, 
and 23d books of Justin ; the lives of Marcellus and Fabios 
Maximus by Plutarch ; and the Punic and lllyrian wars by 
Appian. 

12. But the history of Polybius demands a separate and 
attentive perusal, as an admirable compendium of political 
and military instruction. Of forty books of general history 
we have only five entire, and excerpts of the following twelve. 
The matter of which he treats is the history of the Romans-j 
and the nations with whom they were at war, from the be- 
ginning of the second Punic war to the beginning of the waj" 
with Macedonia, comprising in all a period of about fifty 
years. Of the high estimation in which Polybius stood with 
the authors of antiquity, we have sufficient proof in the en- 
comiums bestovved on him by Cicero, Strabo, Josephus, and 
Plutarch ; and in the use which Livy has made of his history^ 
in adopting his narratives in many parts of his work, by an 
almost literal translation. 

13. The work of Appian, which originally consisted of 
twenty books, from the earliest period of the Roman history 
down to the age of Adrain, is greatly mutilated ; there re- 
maining only his account of the Syrian, Parthian, Mithridat- 
ic, Spanish, Punic, and lllyrian wars. His narrative of each 
of these wars is remarkably distinct and judicious, and his 
composition, on the whole, is chaste and perspicuous. Af- 
ter the history of Appian, the student should resume Liv}', 
from the beginning of the third decade, or 21st book to the 
end. Then he may peruse with advantage the lives of Han 
nibal, Scipio Africanus, Fhjminius, Paulus ^^milius, the el- 
der Cato, the Gracchi, Marius, Sylla, the younger Cato, Ser- 
torious, LucuUus, Julius Caesar, Cicero, Pompey, and Bru- 
tus, by Plutarch. 

14. The histories of the Jugurthine war, and the conspira- 
cy of Catiline by Sallust, come next in order. (Sallust 
characterized Sect, XXXVI. § 8.) Then follow^ the Com- 
mentaries of Caesar (Sect. XXXVi. § 9.) remarkable for 
perspicuity of narration, and a happy union of brevity with 
elegant simplicity of style. The epitomes of Fiorus and of 
Velleius Patercnlus (the latter a model for abridgment o: 



1 



136 A.NciExr nisroBY. vinr i. 

liislory) m'^y ho pcru«ied with advantage at thl« period of tlie 
course. 

J5. Fur tiic iii-t».>r\ i)i liiMiH- under tlif iir^i \- ' >r-, 

\vc have Stjetoiiius and Taritns ; and lor the - - irnt 

• i^ns, the series of the minor iiistorians, termed Historict 
.iuvu^t't * T.f, and the nyzanliue wnti^r**. Suetoniu*' 

rather ^M • t series of delaclird rharactei^, iHtirlrnled by 

an artful selection of fact»» and anecdotes, than a regular his- 
tory, llix work i«i chietly vahiahle as descriptive of Kotnan 
in uiners, thou^^h his j^t* niin ha«i too much of the cau-tic hu- 
mour of a satirist. Tacitu«. with gjreater powers and deep- 
er penetration (see Se( t, XXW'I. § 11.) has drawn his pic- 
ture of the times in stern and nlooniy colours. From neither 
of these historians will the ingenuous mind of youth receive 
moral improvcm«'nt, or j)lca>ini; or l>('ne\ olent im]>res«*ions ; 
yet ^VL• cannot deny tlirir Ingh utiii'v t.. tln' -^hid* nt nf |.<i|i- 
tics. 

IC. If we ovcrpl jlrrotlian, who w role w >lli ta-le anti jtidj(- 
rnent, it is donhtful u hethcr any of the sub^eciuent writers of 
the Kom in history deserve a minute perusal. It were pre- 

rablc that tin* sluilent shotiM derive his knowledj^e of the 
ui.-tory of the <ic''liiio and fill of the empire from modem 
autliors, rciortini; to the orii;inal writers only for occ;u»ional 
information on dftacheil points of importance. For this pur- 
pM 'lif. (M'lieral History hy Dr. Ilowel is a work of very 
\.' ily, as h.'ini; written entirely on the basis of the ori- 

•ijinal historians, whose narative he in penenil translates, re- 
ferrin'4 constantly to hi* authoritie* in the marcin. 'i'he stu- 
dent will tind in this work a m'»?t valualdc ma^s of hir-torical 
iiilormation. 

17. The reader, ha\ii»;j lbii< founded 1m> knowledge of 
general hiftory «)n the on::;inal writers, will now peruse with 
qjreat ndvant:ijije the modern histories of ancient Cireece and 
iJoni'-. by tlie a!de j>ens of .Mitf«»rd. (iillies, (ia>t, Hooke, fiib- 
bou, «Uid Ferj^U-sson, and will lind him-^elf cpialified to form a 
just estimate of their merits, on which (though toofrequently 
the pracliee) it is presumptuous to decide without such pre- 
paratory knowledge. 

18. The jjreatcst migazine of historical information which 
1ki> ever been collected into one body, i- the Knu'lish L'ni- 
veiial History ; a mo.>t useful work, from the amplilu<le of 
its matter, its t^eneral accuracy, and constant reference to 
the i)ri>;iiiul authors. We may occasionally consult it \Mtli 
gre it advantage on points where deep research is necessary ; 
hut we cannot read it with jtlea^ure as a continued work, 
from iti te-iious det-.iih and har>hues9 of style, as well us Irom 



« 



u> .1114 1^11 ii.tii-!iion«, arul the injudicious an iiu^cmciuor ma« 
ny of its parts. 

19. CJeography and chronology have been justly termed 
ilic High's oi history. We cannot jtenise with adv:uil;iz*^ the 
historical annals ol' any country without acoDipetciit notion 
of its geographical site, and even of its particular topogra- 
pliy. In rending the description o( all events, the mind ne- 
'O'SHrily pu tures out the scenes ol" action ; and these it is 

irely hetter to draw with truth from nature and reality, 
ilian falsely from iniai^ination. Many actions and events are 
likewise intimately connected with the geo«;raphv imd local 

icumstances of a couoiry, and arc unintelligible without a 

lowledj^e of them. 

20. 'Ihe use of chronological tahles is very great, hoth for 
the purpose of uniting in one view the coteniporary events in 
dilVerent nations, which often have an influence on each olh- 
•r, and for recallini; to the memory the order and series of 

vcnts, and renewing the impressions of therohjects of for- 
mer study. It is extremely useful, after perusing the histo- 
ry of a nation in detail, or that of a certain age or period, to 
run over briefly the principal ocmrrenres in a table of Chro- 
nology. The most perfect works of this kind are the chrono- 
logical tables of Dr. Pl.tyfair, which unite history and l>io 
graphy ; thc< tables of Dr. lilair ; or the older tabh»s bv Tal 
lent. 



END OF fART ^•Jn^T 

13 



> 



OF 

AyCIKSi .iMf Oi MODKE\ UEOCiR.lPIIV. 



In ihcfoUoTi-ing Tables, the Countries unknonn to the Jncuiu>, 
or of which the .\amcs art unrrrtain, are left blauk. 



MODERN EUROFE. 

(.recnliind, or tlio Arctic Continent 

.SfHlther^en Island 

IccUmd Ulaml, belonging to Norway 

NOUWAY. 
\Vartllini9, or Sorwtgiun LapJanil 
:. DrunUicini 

',. Agutrlmis, or Cliristu.nn 

I L.H>bn«l anil \Vc»l Uclhinia 

3. Cioilil-jntl 

4. I'inlanil 

5w Iblant!« of C'.oiMand, Oclaud, A- 
hui.l, Uugtti 

UF.NMAUK. 

p. Alluui; 
J '2. \V>liurj; 
Jullanil S i. AnihuK-u 
I 4. Uyptu 
L.T. Siis«ick 

1^1. Zcf«lan«l 

•J. Funiu 

3. F.tl«;cv 

I) ii.i^h Is- 4. Longclaiid 

Iti-.ls in "S 5- 1-'«'»'>*I 

.he 13 all: c ' ♦). Ft'mercn 

' 7. A I sen 

' 8. Mncn 

v.<j. IJornhclm 

KI'SSIA IN F.UUOPK. 

1 1, \ r a afi<l Flstonia 

■J. li.^; , or tlic Ciovernmcnt of Vc- 

Idb'-AirA - 

:.. Carelia, nr the GoTernmcnt ol 

Wilmrs: 
4. Novo;j;ix)il 
?. Archargel. Sanjociilia 
C. Moscow 

7. Xibhnci No\ogr04l 

8. Smoleiibki 

9. Kiow 

10. Hielgr.rnd 

11. NV orom.sk 
I'i A'^ofl* 



WCIF.VT EIROPE. 



SCANDINAVIA SCANDIA, ve» 
BALTIA. 

2. Ncrigon 

3. Sitonca 



i. Scritofinni 

2. Suionis 

3. Guvtc ct llillevionew 

4. Finniitgia 

5. IusuIk Siiitu Codani 



I. Cintbri 



n. c 

< ;3. II 



Clicmoncsus S ^- ll«vu«lcs 
Cimbrica .' 4. rhurulusii. iJi{;\ilo. 

V.5. SaaMingii ( nci 

f i 5 Tculonca 



Iniulx Si nils ^ 
Codaoi 



S\UMATIA — EUKOr.T.A 

I. Hirri cl .l^siii vl 0?tiot ».- > 



4. Budini 
C. Dasilicl 
8. Cariones 



10&i4. nudioi 

11. UnxoUni 

12. la/yges 



'UERN EUROPE. 



ANCIENT EUROPE. 13:« 



FRANCE. 

!. Picanly ; 

'2. lik' (>rF(a!ict* 

4. Xormandy 

5. Dr^laio' 
C« O.'icaDDois 



7. Lioriitois 
S. PruVLMce 
y. Laiti^iifdoc 

10. Guieir.ic 

1 1 . < >ascoigiic 
ii. DiUi>liinc 

13. BiiiiijtiuiJy ntjfl FranclicComple 

14. Lorruiiic atnl Alsace 

UNITED NETyERLAXDS. 
1. ilollaiid 
*. Fries! and 
.•3. Zealand 

4. (ji'oniijijen 

5. OvervsjcU 

|j> fj. Guclderiaiid ant) Zut])Len 
7. L'trctlit 
AUSTRIA N. FKEN'CH, AM) 
DUTCH NEFdERLANDb. 



1 Orabaut 



C Ditch 
\ .V'lStriun 



■-. Anlwcri> — Jiuttriun 

3. .Mcchkn, or ^y.\\\i\oi—,1uttriuli 

\. Limburgh ^ ^j'*^'-^. 

5. Luxembui-b \ ^/^^^^ 
° i Austrian 

Hai.ai.il j*^"*'-'^« 
C / c:irh 
1. Carnbresis — F ench 
y. Arlois — French 

r tJuich 
10. R.indcrs •^./fu.'rian 

^l''.LUrh 

f.ERMANV. 

I. Upper Saxony 
'i Lower Sa\o»iV 

\Ve$trt!r.»lIa 



8 

y 

10, 

1 
I 

14 



GALLIA. 

1. AiTiblani 

VJ. iicllovaci Paiibii, Sucssoncs 

3. Itcnji, Catalauni, TiicasseSj 1 

Li'ij^oies 

4. Uiielli \c! Vcneti, Saii,~\ 
Lfxovii VeJiocasst-s ; 

5. Osi;iniii, ^'ellt•ll, Nam- .' 
iicicj, A^dcs, Rc(!ones )>Cdtx 

D. •\ui-cIiaui,Carnulcs, Se- 'i 
nones, 'I'ln oucs, l*iclo- •. 
lies, Biturigts > 

r. ."Etlui, Se),u:>ian( 
S.dves, Cavurcs 

Volex. Arecoinici, llcUii, Tolu- 
satea 

0. Peirocoiii, Bilurigcs, Caduixfi, 

1. Aipiitaiii [Ruieiw 
*. Ali(»bio;jcs, Ceulmnes 

Liiigones. --Edui, Scquani 
Ltuci, Mediomatrici, Triboci, 
Ncnielcs 



SAXONES 



< r lisii 



4. Cauci vcl Chauci 

5. Fratiti 

0. Hnicterj, Caili, Sicambri 

7. IVmuu 

BELC£, &f 

1. Menapii, Tungrli 

2. Toxandri 



■jAle 



mantii 



C. Trcvcri 
7. Kemi 



4. Upper HM .< 

5. L'jwtr KiiiM*; 

6. Fraucopi i 

7. At:stija 

■■.'a 



•.'. Alrcbaics, Vcromamlu* 
10. IK-lga;, Morini 

NATIOXES GERM ANT 
I. Siicvi L-ng^', fccc."^ 
*J. S.Txonci. Longo- i 

bardi, Gamb.ivil j 
). ClitTUSci. Chamn- 1 

\i, Gaiiv.lii. Gcr-^ S.i!^oi.e« 

rnatiia IntlTior j 

4. GermaniuSuiicrior : 

5. ^f Mci, Tincteri J 

6. Maitoiuanni, lie: jno'^.T" 

7. Korlruin 
I 8. Riixtia 

I i> "^ ... ,t,.' ; 



;n .WulJl:.K>. LLiiUi'L. 



.\N(- .i.N'i' Kriion. 



BOH K MI A. 

1 nnii^mii Proper 
5J. Silesia 
''. .Mot-a\ia 

POLAND. 
J . ( I renter I'olainl 
J. Lessir FolantI 
1 I'n.ss a Ucn ki 
:' . .. Diical 

.ilia 

• . : .III! 

. L.i'..:iiiia 

• \\ HrM»%iu 

)'■■"■ -vU-.u 

I ' ':% 

I ',. Ui.i Ivussia 
1 2. I'n.Ii>l.:i 
' i. \ olhit.ia 

SPAIN. 






."• i \ alfiilia 
S. / M»ir< .A 

•1. \ (;,.,.,.,.:. 

o \ .\iithtlu&i;t 

! . / Old Castile 

1'.'. / New Catlile 



( 



( .von 
Mstjcmnilura 



SPANISH 1SLANI)>. 

•■ V iea 

AlN|(jica 

Minorca 

I'ourfc. \\. 

; litre Mii>l»(» f iKiui (i 

l"ra los Monies 

Heim 

l.siremfttlm-a 

I'mre 'l':»jo 

Meiuitj') 

\lg;U"\a 

SWITZERLAND. 

1. Hcni 

.'. Friburi: 

:>. Uasil or liulc 

4. Luccrn 

r>. Soluiurn 

C. Sili^tfiltauscu 

7. Zvirick 



{ 



I. Buiuliumum 
J. ('orojuii 
o. (juaiii 

(;ki{mano-sahma'U 

I. I'liicitii 

'i. Lugtt 

.V c Uurgiindioncs, Rugli, 

4. c iiutlioiies 

•i Ombrogcs 

C. Scyri 

7. ^(ierinano. 

8. iStiniiatiu 



II. r 
! 1-2.^ Bastati.x 
' 13 C 






msi'AMA. xtl IHKUIA 

(tatlxcia— CaoLibii A«!arv»,Var- 

[i!uli 



i.-^Tarraconcnais — Va»cor>«, \n\f- 

[taiii 

7. \ Caiiliapncntit — .tUlitani, Coo- 

8. f (cilani 

'J. / Hart:c4— Uaui.ini. Batluli,Tur- 
10. 7 ilctani, ^cc. 

II. (ialhcke |>i*if — Aecrr-i, Arc- 

Tati 
1 1 TarraconcntU \*str* — Carpcla- 

ni, OietHiii 
13. <;ulii«eir jij»r« — Vcltor.ca 
l\. lAiuUulat para — Uraturia 

INSUL.l'. HISPANICX. 
inal*arcs ^ 

LUSITANIA 

r..i!i...-; 



Lusiuiu 
Cettici 



IIKLVKTIA 






Ambrones 



III 



! c 

8. / Tigurinl "^ 



\ i, K >.iits 



10. 



MODERN El R6PK. 



AVCfEVT EUROPE ill 



12. Uri 

13. Underwald 



14. 
15. 



^Cnnfede- 
Ci eneva •< rates of the 



Grisons, &c. 'Swiss 

IT.VLY. 

1. Savoy 
'J. Piedmont 
:^. .Montlerrat 
-i. Milan 
5. (ieiioa 
C. Parma 

7. Mo(lena 

8. Mantua 

9. Venice 

10. Trent 

11. Ths Popedom 

12. Tuscany 

13. Luccu 

14. San Marino 

15. Kingdom of Naples 

ITALl.VN ISL.\ND!? 

1. Sielly 

2. Sardinia 

3. Corsica 
4 -Malta 

Lipari Islands 
■ Cupri, Isc-hia, kc. 

HUNGARY. 

TRAN.SVLV.\NIA. 



14. Nantuatcs 

15. Vcragii, Vallis Pcnniaa; Lepou- 

tii 

IT ALT A. 

I. Lepontii, Scgusiui, Taurini"^ 



2. Orobi 

3. f 

4. I«subres / 

5. ) 

6. Anaraani 

7. Boii 

8. Cenomani 

9. VtMiftia 

10. Tridfnlini 

11. LingoFies, 



Liguria 



J 



SCLAVOM.V 




PAN NOMA 


CROATIA. 




ILLYRICU.M 


TL'RKKV IN EUROPE. 






'. D.tliii.iiiii 




1. Dalinntia 

2. .Mxwa Supi-rio: 

3. Dacia Ripensis 


:. V\ aH.Jiia 




4. Gcta: 


-■ -M liNia and Htissaj-abb 




Cy. Pars DaciP 


6. Bulgaria 




0. .M-Jcsia inferior 


7. Albania 




r 7. Epirus 
H. Macedonia 


<. .Macedonia 




'. R'lmania 


< 


0. TlirHcia 


10. Livadia 


O^ 


10. Thcasalia 


11. Morea 


ii:< 


11. Ptli>)>unncsU9 


12. Budziac Tartary or Bessarabia 


•^ 


IJ. St\tliia v{ pars Uicix 


tl. Little Tartary 


— 


l.>. Parva Scylliia 


1 t. Crimea 




^U Tauricu Clu'rsonesus 


GREEK ISLANDS. 




INSUL.t MARIS loNir: 


1. Corfu 


1. ( 


yOrcyra 


2. Cephaloma 


2 i 


'epiialenia 


3. Zante 


V i 


^acynlliiis - 


4. Ilh.^c«', Tliiacf, kc 


4. 1 


ihaca, kc. 


IN THE AKCHII»ELAGO. 




INSUL.^ MARIS -DGIAF 


1. Candia 


1. ( 


L-ieta 


2. Nej^mpnnt 


'J. 


tubaea 


3. StaiiiiK-ne 


3. 


Li-iiiiioc 


4 Scyro, &«. 


4. 


Scyros, &ic. 



Gal- 
lia 
'Ci- 
^sal- 
pina 
vel 
To 
gala 
Senones, Pic»M»um. 
Umbria, Sabini l^ars Lalii 
I'J Tuscia vel Etruria 
1.5. Pars Tu»ci c 

14. ParsUmbriai 

15. Samniuin, Pars Latii, Ajmlia, 
Campania, Lucania, Bi-ulUmti 

INSLL.E ITALICS. 

1. Si«ilia. Sicania, vol Triuacrip 

2. Saitio vel Sardinia 

3. Cvrnus vel Corsica 

4. .Mclila 

5. Lcpurisc Insulx 

C Cajircj?, Iscba, Js:c 

D.VCLV 



13* 



SCOTLAND. 

1. R<liribtirL;li 
S. nati>iiiif>ton 

4. J{'.xf)iirgh 

5. .S.:ik.rk 

6. ihtn,tnt:$ 

7. Kircitdbngitt 
h. t. -Me* 

10. I^neik 

IJ. Am 

12. Ouiubuiion 

J.i. Buu 

i4. Itvitfrcw 

15. Stirling 

16. l,inI;tlicow 
17 Fife 

1^. (JIackmaniiaD 
ly. Kim OSS 

- 1 • A PKji le 

'-"-'. Kiiicnrilirit 
•i3. KoH'nr 
-4. .\t>cnliirti 
■'.^. Hanff 
-0. Klj;iu 

27. Nuirn 

28. ftivrriicu 

-t) U089 

HI. Croniartj 
31 Sutli.- ImimI 
3*2. Caiilineu 
33. Ok.uy 
31. Sfu-fii,ii(I 

EN'GLAM*. 

1. Corn will I 

2. Div.insliire 

3. Dorsrr' !;ir (• 

4. H;«ii.j»Oiiii- 

'•• Sotnrrtfiuliirt 

6. WiltHliire 

7. Ikrkdiire 

8 OxfonUhire 

y. Clmicffti'Dhirc 
H>. N(onnifitith<t|itrc' 
11. Ilfrelordshirf 
1- \Vnrcr*fci»)iire 
!> Si:»fT.)i.lshirc 

14. Shropkliire 

15. Ksvx 

ir.. HMitConhhirr 
J7. Kent 

18. Siirrv 

19. SUFSCX 

2a X.ML.Ik 

21. SnO'.'L 

22. C.-»i hire 

23. Kunu -.Miihlure 



'ROPE. ANCli..>i i-tixurE. 

l.REAT HHir AIN 



SCOTIA. 




Jf rCnledonii . 

20 J J 

21. KpUlii, Cinlfoi, Cerones 

2*. \cniiconcs'^ 

2-» Moiitt.i 

-*• "J )*Ati;iCC'U 

5 S.Tjz*li \ 

26. 3 J 



} 

.,y. > » acomagi 






.'4. BcUforUshirc 



3lJ* ^»««' 

3-.'. M.rt* J 

.».'). OlT.nlct 

•>» IJimIi- 

ANOUA 
^, JDamnoitii 
."*. Durotriget 

7. Aurrbatii 

y ^Dobuiii 

jj jailurci 

I • >Corn»>ii 
.4.3 

1 5. Trino!>»n(es 
ir». CAlicuclilaiii 
17 < aritii 

ib. >CaUcutlJani 



I 1-. 



MODERN EUROPE. 



ANCIENT EUROPE. 143 



25. Buckinghamsliire 

26. l^mcoiishire 

27. NoUinghatnshire 

28. Dcrb>sliii-c 

29. liutlaiidshire 

30. Leicestershire 

31. Warwickshire 

32. .Vorlhaniptonshire 

33. Northumberlatid 

34. Durham 

35. Yorkshire 
30. Lancashire 

37. Westmoreland 

38. Cuniheiland 
39 Cheih.re 
\0. Middlesex 

WALES. 

1. Anglesey 

2. Flinishire 

3. MontRoinery 
4 DcMib.j^hjhire 

5. ' ariturvorisliirc 

6. Merioneth 

7. ( 'ardipmishire 

8. Carmnrlliciishire 
y. Pembrokeshire 

10. Kudtiorshire 

IL Breckiiffckthirc 

12. GlamorgHnshire 

IRELAND. 



r 



Louth 
.MuMth Kast 
.Mcaih Wot 
LfjiiRforil 
Dublin 



( Islcr 



MuQatcr 



Kiidarc 

7. Kiiin's L'ounty 

8. Queen's County 
9 Wicklow 

10. Cat low 

11. Wcxfon! 
_1'J. KiikctitiT 

ri3. Doonegul or Tyr- 
: con I > el 

14 Londonderry 

15 Antrim 
10. Tyrone 

17. Fcrm.inagh 

18. Armagh 
10. iXiwn 
20. Mona^lian 
■2\. Ca>an 

^2-2. Cork Cnnnfy 
{'23. Wuterfonl 
1 24. Tipiierary 
■^ '25. Linieiick 
( 26. Kerry 
\J2T. Clare ' 



I' 



25. Attrebati 

27.1 

2S. )»Coritani 

29.: 

30j 

3\. Cornavi 

32. Cetieuchlani 

gMotUdeni 

35^ 

^j' ^Brigaotcs 

38.J 

39. ComaTii 

40. Attrebales et Catieuchlani 



1. Mona Insula 
4. ^Ordovices 



\ 

J 

ll.>Silu 
I2j 



8 
9J 

10 



Demciae 



res 



3. 
4. 

5. 

r> 

7. 
8 
9. 

10. 

II 

12. 

13. 



niRKKNIA VEL IRENE. 
^ olunlii 

^Cauci 

A uteri 

]nianii 

^Corioiidi 

Hianii 
KMaiiMpii 

Coriondi 

Vennicnii 



14.-) 
I5.J.Koh 

If..) 

17. E 
18% 
10. {.^ 

20.3 



•bogdji 
17. Erdini 
A'oluntii 



21. Cauci 

22. Vodiie, iTcrn 
]^' I Drigantcs 

"*g}Vclabori 
27. Gangar.' 



114 MODERN ASfA. 



ANXIENT ASIA. 



(: 



28. Gelway 
. 2y. Hoscommon 
Connaught-^ 30. Mayo 
• 31. Sli^o 
^32. Lcitrim 

BRITANNIC ISLANDS. 

1. Shetland aiifl Orkticy 

2. Western Isles of Scotland 

3. Man 

4. Anglesey 

5. WigUt 

ASIA. 

TURKEY IN ASIA. 

1. Natolia 

2. Amasia or Siwas 

3. Aladulia 
•). Caianiauia 

Irak 

Diarbeck 

Curdistati 

Turcomania 

Georgia 



10. Syria and Palestine 

ARABIA. 

Ar.'ibift Petfipa 
AtahiaUcseiia 
Arabia I'elix 

PERSIA, 
i. Cliorassan 

J, Balk, Sablustan, and Candaliar 
.3. Sigisun 

4. Makcr:in 

5. Kcnnan 
li. Farsisian 

7. Cliuscstan 

8. Irak Aqenx 
I). Curdeslan 

10. Aderbeilzen t. 

1 1. Georgia 
I 2. CJangea 
i3. IXigestan 

J 4. Mazanderam 
15. Gilan Taberislan 
1%. Chirvan 

INDIA. 
/ Delli 
1 Agra 
\ Cambaia 
\ Bengal 



Mogol 



Tndia 
the 



t Dtcan 

I within 7 Golconda 
c Ganges \ Bisnagar 
( Malabar 



28. 
29 
30 
31 

3-2 


Gangani 
Auteri 

(.NagnatK 


1. 

2. 
3. 
4. 
5. 


INSUL.« BRlTANNICiE 

Tl.ule 

Ebudcs Insulx 

Mon Kla vcl Mona 

Mona 

Vectis 



ASIA. 
ASIA MINOR. 

Mysia, Ljdia. Caria, Phrygian' 

Biihynia Galalia, Paidilagunm. 

Ponlus 

Armenia 

Cappadocia, Cilicia, ftcc. 

Babalonia, Chaldsea 

Mesopotamia 

Assyria 

^ Armenia Major 

^ Syria, Palniyrcne 
3 Phicnicia, Judxa 



ARABIA. 

Arabia Pctrtca 
Arabia Descrta 
Arabia Felix 

PERSIA. 

1. Pars HyrcanJB el Sogdian;e 

2. Bactriana 
Drangiana 



4. 
5. 
G. 
7. 
8. 
9. 
10. 



Gedrosia 

Persis 

Siisiana 

Parlhia 

l*ars Assyria 

Media 



|l.-> 

»2.>Iberia, Colchis, et Albanrft 

13.3 



15. Pars Hyrcanix 
{ 16. Pars Albauiae 



India intra 
Gangena 



INDIA. 

rPalibothra 

I Agora 

I UegnaPorietTaxili* 



Tsland of Ceylon 



Dachanos 

Praiii Ttf/Gaogarid{6 
LMale 



Taprobana Ins. v^\ Salice 



MODERN ASIA. 



ANCIENT ASIA. 145 



C Pegu 
India beyond 1 Tonquiii 


India extra ) 


the Ganges \ Cochinchina 
\ Siam 


Ganges \ 

( Sin 


CHINA. 




Niuche 




Corea 




Laotong 


Siusc 


Pekin " 




Xansi 


• 

Sericje 


Xensi 




Xaiitnin 


Cath.ca 


Xaukirii; 




("liekiirni 




Honan 


■rr 


Ilufjuam 




Kiaiusi 




Fokien 




Canton 




Qu:intsi 




Suehiiea 




Qiie«heu 




Yiinuni 




CHINESE ISLANDS. 




Formosa 




Ainan 




M acao 




Bashoe Islands 




KUSSIA IN ASIA 




1. Astracan 


I. SARMATIA 




Asiatica 


2. Orenburg 


SCYTHIA r2. 

1 *^ 


3. Casan 


intra s 


/ Tobolsk 


1 c-u / Jeniseia 
i. SibCT-.a < i,.,^^jj3^ 


IMAUM. L 


f Kamsehatka 





narum Rcgio 



IN i)ependp:nt tarta uy. 

1. Great Bucharia 
■2. Karasm 

aluth tartars. 

1. Little Bucharia 
•2. Casgar 
;}, Turkestan 

4. Kalnaac Tartars 

5. Thibet 

%. Little Thibet 

CHINESE TARTARY. 

Kalkas 

Mongol Tartars 
ZNiantcliOu Tartars 
Corea 

ISLANDS OF CHINESE TAR- 
TARY. 

Sagatien-uia-hata 
Jcdso 



1. Baotriana, Sogdiuna 

2. Aria 



SCYTHIA I 3* 
extra ^ V 

IMAUM. I ;• 



SlN.E. 



146 



AFRICA AND NORTH AMERICA. 



ISLANDS OF JAPAN. 






.lapiin or Niphou 






Xicoco 






Ximo 






PHIL1PPIXE ISLES. 






Lucon or Mjuiilla 






Mindanao, &cc. 






^LVULAN OR LADUOXE IS- 






LANDS. 






I'iiiian 






ISLES OF SUNDA. 






Lcrneo 






Suni«tra 






Java, kc. 




.^ 


MOLUCCA ISLES. 






Celebes 






Amboyna 






iJei'aui 






Timor 






FJores, Jcc. 






MALOn A ISLES. 






MODERN AI RICA. 




ANCIENT AFRIL.J 


BAHHAKY. 






1. Morocco 


1. 


Maurctania Tingiiana 


•2. AlgilTS 


o 


Miurelania Casaiiensis 


X Tunis 


3. 


Niuuiiiia, Afnca Propria 


*. Tripoli 


4. 


Ttipolitaita 


5. Barta 


5. 


Cyeuaicu, Lybia Superior 


1. JiiTVpt 


1. 


^'ie'ffyf>lus 


± JiiLa:lgsr^id 


2. 


Liby . Inferior, Gaetuha 


3. 2t'mra^ or the De«eit 


3. 


Solimdines 


4. ^YtTrolund 


4. 


Autololea 


5. Guinea 






r Nubia 






%. Uftper £rAio/Ma.-l Abvssiuia 


6 


Aethiopiae et Libyae pars 


f.Abcx 






7. JLofoer E hiopia- 


/ . 


Acth-otnac pars 


/ I^a;igo 






% Coiij;r» 






S. Lower Guinea. / Angola 






i >Jen2;Mela 






^ Matanan 






9. .8jan 






*o. Zutiffuebar 






1 1 . Monomutapu 






12. JManocmu^i 






13. S'.fola 






14. Terra de A'atid 






15. Cafrmiii, or country of ihc Hot- 






tentots 






NORTfl i^ 


lmerica. 


BRITISH. 




ISLANDS. 


1. Tlie Countries on the east acid 


1. 


Newfoundland 


west sides of Baffin's and Hud- 


2. 


Cape Breton 


son's Bays 


s 


Bermudas 


t2. Labrador, or New Britain 


4- 


Long Island 


5. Canada 


5- 


Bahama Islands 



ANCIENT EMPIRES. 



147 



■; Xova Scotia 




6. Jamaica 


5. New Eti«land "^ 


7. St. Christophers 


p. 6. New Yolk j 


8. Nevis 


^- ''7. New Jersey | 


9. Montserrat 


8, Pennsylvania 


10. Antigua 


9. Maryland lUnited States. 
; 10. Virginia ( 


11. Dominica 


12. St. Vincent 


! 11. North Carolina 




13. Tobago 


12. South Carolina 




14. Grenada 


13. Georgia 




15. Barbadoes, Sue. See. 


K.U. Florida 






I 


DANISH ISLANDS. 


SPANISH. 


1. St. Thomas 


1. Mexico or New Spain 


2. Santa Cruz 


2. New Mexico 




9. LouUiana 




ISLANDS. 


SOUTH AMERICA. 


1. Cuba 




2. Porto Rico 


FRENCH. 


3. "West part of St. Domingo 


Part of the province of Guiana Ca- 


4. Trinidad 


yenne, &c. 


5. Margarita 

6. Cubagua, &c. 


SPANISH. 
1. Terra Firma 


DUTCH ISLANDS. 


2. Country of the Amazons 


}. Part of St. Martin's Isle 


3. Peru 


2. Eustatius 


4. Chili 


3. Aves 


5. Terra MagtUanica 


4. Bucnayres 


6. Paraguay 


3. Curacoa 


7. Tueuinaa 


6. Aruba 






DUTCH. 


FRENCH ISLANDS. 


Part of Guiana, Surinam, &c. 


1. Miquelon 




2. St. Pierre 


PORTUGUESE. 


3. Part of S\ Martin's Isle 


Brazil, and many islands on the 


4. St. Bartholomew 


coast 


5. Marti nico 


Part of Guiana 


6. Oiiadaloupe 




• 7. Dcsiada 




n^ 8. Mariegulante 




9. St. Lucia 




10. Part of St Domingo 




ANCIENT 


EMPIIIE.S. 


The Empire of Assyria, under Ninus 


The Empire of the Persians, undei' 


andScmiramis, about 2200 before 


Danus Hystaspes, 5'22 before J. C. 


J. C. Qomprehended 


comprehended 


Asia Minor 


Persis 


Colchis 


Susiana 


Aasyri* 


Chaldea 


Medea Chahfea v 


Assyria 


Egypt 


Media 


■'t' ■ 


Hactriana 


The Empiic of Assyria, as divided 


Armenia 


about 820 before J. C. formed 


.Asia 


thvec kingdoms 


Parthia 


Media 


Iberia 


Babylo-Chaldca^^;;';;,,, 


Albania 
Colchis 


Lydia All Asia Minor 


Egypt 



."iS 



118 



ANCIENT E3IPlRi:S. 



Part ot Ethiopia 
I'art ol'Scylhia 

The Empire of Alcxaruler the Great, 
330 btfore J. C. consisttil of 

1. All Macedonia and Greece, ex- 
cepting Peloponnesus 

•2. All the Persian liropire, as above 
described 

3. India to the batiks of the Indus on 
the east, and laxartes or I'anaia 
on the north 

The Empire of Alexander was tlius 

<livide«l 300 before J. C. between 

Ptbleiny, Cassander, Lysima- 

chus, and Seleucus : 

(-Egypt 

-, . . . Lybia 
Krnp.re of ^ ^'^.^^^^. 

Ptolemy. ^. c^^iosyna 

*^ [*alesline 
Empire of C.Macedonia 
Cassander. cCJreece 
Empire of ^Thrace 
Lysimachus. iMilhynia 

/-Svria, and 
Empire ol V All the rest of Alex- 
Seleucus ^ ander's empire 

The Empire of the Parthians, 140 

before J. C. coropreliended 
Purthia 
Jlyrcania 
Me<iia 
Per sis 
Dactriana 
Kaliylonia 
Mesopotamia 
India to the Indus 

The Roman Empire, under the 
Kings, was confined to the City of 
Rome, and a few miles around it. 

ri»e, Roman Empire, at the end of 
llie Ilcpublic, comprehended 

All If.i'v 

CiM' ii put of (iaul 

Part of JMtaiu 

Africa l'ro\)er 

Grcitt i):trt of Spain 

lllvria, Istria, Lihurnia, Dalmalia 

Achiia 

Mocedonia 

Dardania, Moesia, Thracia 

PontuB. Armenia 

Jud;ca, Cilicia, Syria 

Egypt 



Under the Emperors, 

All Spain 

The Alpes, Maritim??, 

»*iedmont, &c. Were re- 

Rhsetia, Noricum, Pan- duced in- 

nonia, anrl Moisia ^tottouinn 

Pontus Armenia i provmce^ 

Assyria '. 

Arabia 1 



^syv^ 



J 



Constantlns Chlorus and Galerlus di 
vided the Empire into Eastern and 
Western ; and under Constantino 
each had a distinct capital or scat 
of Empire. 
Tlie exlerlt of each division was fluc- 
tuating from time to time ; but in 
general, 

ritaly 
1 lllvria 
The Western Empire J Africa 
comprehended ] Spain 

I The GauN 
\^lJritain 
rAsia Minor 
• Pontus, \i- 
I menia 
The Eastern Empire -^ Assyria, Mc- 
comprelicnded I dia, Src, 

l' 1 hrace 

' Daeia 

\^ Macedonia 

The Empire of Charlemr.gne, A. U. 
80l^, comprehended, 

^Ncustria, comprehend- 
ing P Tetany, Nor- 
mandy, Isle of France, 
Orleannois 
Austria, comprehen 
ing PJcardy, and 
FRANCE.^ Chnmpagne 

Aquitanifl, compre- 
hending Guicnne and 
Gascony 
RuigunUia, • com pre - 
hendinijf Burgundy, 
Lionnois, Languedoc, 
L Dauphine, Provence 

Marca Hispauica, or NaTarre anH 

Catalonia 

Majorca, Minorca, and Ivica, Corsi- 
ca 

Italy, as far south as Napici 

Istria, L'hurnia, D2tlmatia 

Rh?itia, Viiidclica, Noricurn 

Germany, from the Rhine to the 
Oder, and the banks of the BaUi': 



< 



MODERN HISTORY. 



PART SECOND. 
I. 

or ARABIA, AXD THE EMriRE OF THE SARACENS. 

1. L HE fall of the Western empire of the Romans, and 
the final subjugation of Italy by ttie Lombard;:, is the aera 
from which we date the commencement qf modern history. 

The Eastern empire of the Romans continued to exist for 
many ages after this period, still magnilicent, though in a 
state of comparative weakness and degeneracy. Toward? 
the end of the sixth century, a new dominion arose in the 
East, which was destined to produce a wonderful change on 
a great portion of the globe. 

The Arabians, at this time a rude nation, living chiefly in 
ludependeut tribes, who traced their descent fiom the Pa- 
triarch Abraham, professed a mixed religion compounded of 
Judaism and Idolatry. Mecca, their holy city, arose to emi- 
nence from the donations of pilgrims to its temple, in which 
was reposited a black stone, an object of high veneration 
Mahomet was born at Mecca, A. D. 571. Of mean descent, 
and no edu*cation, but of great natural talents, he sought to 
raise himself to celebrity, by feigning a divine mission to 
propagate a new religion for the salvation of mankind. He 
retired to the desert, and pretended to hold conferences with 
the Angel Gabriel, who delivered to hitfi from time to time 
portions of a sacred book or Coran, containing revelations 
of the will of the Supreme Being, and of the doctrines 
which he required his Prophet to communicate to the world. 

2. This religion, while it adopted in part the morality of 
Christianity, retained many of the rites of Judaism, and souac 
of the Arabian superstitions, us the pilgrimage to Mecca ; 
but^wed to a certain spirit of Asiatic voluptuousness its 
chieT recommendation to its votaries. The Coran taught 
^be belief of one God, whose will and power were constantly 

11 



loO MODERN IIISTORV. TART II. 

exerted towards the happiness of his creatures ; that the du- 
ty of mm was to love his neighbours, assist the poor, pro- 
tect the injured, to be humane to inferior animals, and to 
pray seven times u-day. The pious mussulman was allowed 
to have four wives, and as many concubines as he chose ; and 
the pleasures of love were promised as the supreme joys 
of paradise. To revive the impression of these laws which 
God had engraven originally in the hearts of men, he had 
-ent from time to time his prophets upon earth, Abraham, 
Moses, Jesus Christ, and Mahomet ; the last the greatest, 
to whom all the world should owe its conversion to the true 
religion. By producing the Coran in detached parcels, Ma- 
homet had it in his power to solve all objections by new reve- 
lations. 

3. Dissensions and popular tumults between the believers 
and infidels caused the banishment of Mahomet from Mecca. 
His tlight, called the Hcgyra, (A. D. 622,) is the xra of his 
dor)'. He betook himself to Medina, was joined by the 
crave Omar, antbpropagating his doctrines with great suc- 
cess, marched with his followers in arms, and took the city 
of Mecca. In a few years he subdued all Arabia ; and then 
attacking Syria, won several of the Roman cities. In the 
midst of his victories he died at the age of sixty-one, A. D. 
(;32. lie had nominated Ali his son-in-law his successor, but 
Abubcker his father in-law secured the succession, by gaining 
the army to his interest. 

4. Abubeker united and publi'^hcd the books of the Coran, 
and prosecuted the conquests of Mahomet. He defeated the 
army of Heraclius, took Jerusalem, and subjected all be- 
tween Mount Libanus and the Mediterranean. On his death, 
Omir was elected to the Caliphate, and in one campaign de- 
prived the Greek empire of Syria, Pbtenicia, Mesopotamia, 
and Chalda?a. In the next, he subdued to the Mussulman 
dominion and religion, the whole em])ire of Persia. His 
generals at the same time conquered Egypt, Lybia, and 
Isumidia. 

5. Otmnn the, successor of Omar, added to the dominion 
of the Caliphs Baclriiina, and part of Tartary, and ravaged 
Rhodes and the Greek islands. His successor was Ali, the 
son in-law of Mahomet, a name to this day revered by the 
Mahometans. Fie transferred the scat of the Caliphat from 
Mecca to Couffa, whence it was afterwards removed to Rag- 
dat. His reign was glorious, but only of five years duration. 
In the space of half a century from the begimiingof thecon- 
qur-. ts of Mahomet, the Saracens raised an empire more ex- 
tensive than what remained of the Roman. Nineteen Caliphs 



SECT. 2. MODERN HISTORY. J 5.} 

of the race of Omar (^Ommiades) reigned in succession after 
which began the dynasty of the Jibassidce, descended by the 
male line from Mahomet. Almanzor, second Cahph of this 
race, removed the seat of empire to Bagdat, and introduced 
learning and tlie culture of the sciences, which his successors 
continued to promote with equal zeal and liberality. Haroua 
Alraschid, who tlourished in the beginning of the ninth centu- 
ry, is celebrated as a second Augustus. The sciences chiefly 
cultivated by the Arabians were, Medicine, Geometry, and 
Astronomy. They improved the Oriental Poetry, by adding 
regularity to its fancy and luxuriancy of imagery. 



II. 

MONARCHY OF THE FRANKS. 

1. The Franks were originally those tribe* of Germans 
who inhabited the districts lying on the Lower Rhine and 
Weser, and who, in the time of Tacitus, passed under the 
names of Chauci, Cherusci, Catti, Sicambri, &c. They as- 
sumed or received the appellation of Franks, or freemen, 
from their temporary union to resist the dominion of the 
Romans. Legendary chronicles record a Pharamond and a 
Meroveus ; the latter the head of the first race of the kings 
of France termed the Merovingian ; but the authentic history 
of the Franks commences only with his grandson Clovis, 
who began to reign in the year 481. While only in the 
twentieth year of his age, Clovis achieved the conquest of 
Gaul, by the defeat ©f Syagrius the Roman Governor ; and 
marrying Clotilda, daughter of Chilperic King of Burgundy, 
soon added that province to his dominions, by dethroning 
his father-in-law. He was converted by Clotilda ; and the 
Franks, till then idolaters, became Christians, after their 
Sovereign's example. The Visigoths, professing Arianism^ 
were masters at this time of Aquitaine, the country between! 
the Rhone and Loire. The intemperate zeal of Clovis 
prompted the extirpation of these heretics, who retreated 
across the Pyrennecs into Spain, and the province of Aqui- 
taine became part of the kingdom of the Franks. They did* 
not long retain it ; for Theodoric the Great, defeating Ciovi^' 
m the battle of Aries, added AquitainWo his own domin- 
ions. Clovis died A. D. 611. 

2. His four sons divided the monarchy, and were pepetu- 
aliy at war with each other. A series of weak and wicked 



15.2 ^IQDERN IIISTORV. PART II. 

princes succeeded, and Gaul for seme ages was characteriz- 
ed under its Frank Sovereigns by more than ancient bar- 
barism. On the death of Dagobert II. (A. D. 715.) who 
left two infant sons, the government, during their minority, 
fell into the hands of their chief officers, termed .Mayors of 
the Palace ; and these ambitious men founded a new power, 
which for some generations held the Frank Sovereigns in ab- 
solute subjection, and left tlicm little more than the title of 
King. Austrasia and Neustria, the two great divisions of 
the Frank n>onarchy, were nominally governed by Thierry, 
but in reality by Fcpin lleristel. Mayor of the Palace, who, 
restricting his Sovereign to a small domain, ruled France for 
thirty years with great wisdom and good polic3^ His son, 
Charles Martel, succeeded to his power, and under a similar 
title governed for twenty six years with equal ability and 
success. He was victorious over all his domestic foes, his 
arms kept in awe the surrounding nations, and he delivered 
France from the ravages of the Saracens, whom he entirely 
defeated, between Tours and Poictier?. A. D. 732. 

3. Charles Martel bequeathed the goveninient of France, 
s an undisputed inheritance, to his two sons, Pepin le Bref, 

iind Carloman, who governed under the same title of Mayor, 

the one Austrasia, and the other Neustria and Burgundy. 

On the resignation of Carloman, Pepin succeeded to the 

^ sole administration ; and, ambitious of adding the title of 

King to the power ^vhich he already enjoyed, proposed the 

question to Pope Zachary, whether he or his Sovereign Chil- 

vieric w.is most worthy of the throne ? Zachary, who had 

liis own interest in view, decided that Pepin had a right to 

add the title of King to the office ; and Childeric was conlin- 

. ed to a monastery for life. With him ended the first or Me- 

■^ Tovineian race of the Kings of France, A. D. 751. 

4. Pepin recompensed the service done him by the Pope, 
i)y turning his arms against the Lombards ; and stripping 
ihem of the exarchate of Ravenna, he made a donation of 
that and other considerable territories to the Holy See, which 
^vere the fir.«^, as is alleged, of its temporal possessions. 
Conscio\is of his defective title, it was the principal oject of 
Pepin le Bref to conciliate the affections of the people whom 
he governed. The legislative power among the Franks was 
vested in the people assembled in their Champs de Mars. 
Under the Merovingian race, the regal authority had sunk to 
nothing, while the power of the nobles had attained to an 
inordinate extent. Pepin found it hi§ best policy to acknow- 
ledge and ratify those rights, which he could not without 

* danger have invaded ; and thus under the character of gua^* 



dian of tbe powers of all the orders of the state, he exalted 
the regal office to its proper elevation, and founded it on tbe 
securest basis. On his death-bed, he called a council of 
the grandees, and obtained their consent to a division of his 
kingdom between his two sons, Charles and Carloman. He 
died A. D. 768, at the age of fifty three, after a reign of se- 
venteen years from the death of Childeric III., and an ad- 
ministration of twenty-seven from the death of Charles 
MarteL 



III. 



REFLECTIONS ON THE STATE OF FRANCE DURING THE ME- 
ROVINGIAN RACE OF ITS KINGS. ORIGIN OF THE FEUDAL 
SYSTEM. 

1. The manners of the Franks were similar to those of 
the other Germanic nations described by Tacitus. Though 
under the command of a Chief or King, their government 
was extremely democratical, and they acknowledged no oth- 
er than a military subordination. The legislative authority 
resided in the General Assembly, or Champ de Mars, held 
amiually on the 1st day of March ; a council in which the 
King had but a single suffrage, equally with the meanest sol- 
dier. But Avhen in arms against the enemy, his power wa? 
absolute in enforcing military discipline. 

2. AOer the establishment of the Franks in Gaul, some 
changes took place from their new situation, The^' reduc- 
ed the G^uls to absolute subjection ? yet they left many in 
possession of their lands, because the new country was too 
large for its conquerors. They left them likewise in the use 
of their existing laws, which were those of the Roman code, 
while they themselves were governed by the Salique and 
Ripuaiian laws, ancient institutions in observance among the 
Franks before they left their original seats in Germany. — 
Hence urose that extraordinary diversity of local laws and 
usages in the kingdom of France, which continue down to 
modern times, and gave occasion to numberless inconven- 
iences. 

3. The ancient Germans had the highest veneration for 
their priests or Druids. It was natural thnl the Franks, Af- 
ter their conversion to ChristirMiity, should have the siune 
reverence for their bishops, to whor^ ticcoruingly they al- 
lowed the first rank in the national assembly. These bish- 

14* 



154 MODERN HISTORV. FART II. 

ops were generally chosen from among the native Gauls ; 
for having adopted ixom this nation their new religion, it was 
natural that their priests should be chosen from the same 
people. The influence of the clergy contributed much to 
ameliorate the condition of the oonquered Gauls, and to hu- 
manize their conquerors ; and in a short space of time the 
two nations were thoroughly incorporated. 

4. At this period a new sj^stem of policy is visible among 
this united people, which by degrees extended itself over 
most of the nations of Europe, — the Feudal System. 

By this expression is properly meant that tenure or condi- 
tion on which the proprietors of land held their possessions, 
viz. an obligation to perform military service, whenever re- 
quired by the chief or overlord to whom they owed allegi- 
ance. 

Many modern writers attribute the origin of this institution 
OP policy to the Kings of the Franks, who, after the conquest 
of Gaul are supposed to have divided the lands among their 
followers, on this condition of military service. But this no- 
tion is attended with insurmountable difficulties. For, in the 
first place, it proceeds on this false idea, that the conquered 
lands belonged in property to the King, and that he had the 
eight of bestowing them in gifts, or dividing them among his 
followers ; whereas it is a certain fact, that among the 
Franks the partition of conquered lands was madel)y lot, as 
was the division even of the spoil or booty taken in battle ; 
and that the King's share, though doubtless, a larger portion 
than that of his captains, was hkewise assigned him by lot. 
Secondly, If we should suppose the King to have made those 
gifts to his captains out of his own domain, the creation of a 
very few benejicia would have rendered him a poorer man 
than his subjects. We must therefore have recourse to 
another supposition for the origin of the ftefs ; and we shall 
nnd that it is to be traced to a source much more remote 
than the conquest of Gaul by the Franks. 

5. Among ail barbarous nations, with whom war is the 
chief occupation, we remark 9- strict subordination of the 
members of a tribe to their chief or leader. It was observed 
by Caesar as peculiarly strong among the Gaulish nations, 
and as subsisting not only between the soldiers and their 
commander, but between the inferior towns or villages and 
the canton or province to which they belonged. In peace 
every man cultivated his land, free of all taxation, and sub- 
ject to no other burden than that of military service when re- 
quired by his chief. When the province was at war, each 
vill,'fge« though taxed to furnish only a certain number of sol- 



SECT. 3. ^> MODERN HISTORY. 15^ 

diers, was bound to send, on the day appointed for ageneml 
muster, all its males capable of bearing arms, and from these 
its rated number was selected by the chief of the province. 
This clientela subsisted among the Franks as well as among 
the Gauls. It subsisted among the Romans, who, in order 
to secure their distant conquests, were obliged to maintain 
iixed garrisons on their frontiers, to check the inroads of the 
Barbarian nations. To each officer in these garrisons it was 
customary to assign a portion ©f land as the pledge and pay 
of his service. These gifts were termed bene/icia, and their 
proprietors benejieiarn, Plin. Ep. lib. 10. ep. 32. The hencji- 
cia were at first granted only for life : Alexander Severus al- 
lowed them to descend to heirs, on the like condition of mil- 
itary service. 

6. When Gaul was overrun by the Franks, a great part of 
the lands was possessed on this tenure by the Roman soldiery, 
as the rest was by the native Gauls. The conquerors, ac- 
customed to the same policy, would naturally adopt it in the 
partition of their new conquests ; each man, on receiving his 
share, becoming bound to military service, as a condition ne- 
cessarily annexed to territorial propert}'. With respect to 
those Gauls who retained their possessions, no other change 
was necessary, than to exact the same obligation of military 
vassalage to their new conquerors that they had rendered to 
their former masters the Emperors, and, before the Roman 
conquest, to their native chiefs. Thus no other change took 
place than that of the overlord. The system was the same 
which had prevailed for ages. 

7. But these beneficia, or fiefs, were personal grants, revo- 
cable by the Sovereign or overlord, and reverting to him on 
the death of the vassal. The weakness of the Frank Kings 
of the Merovingian race imboldened the possessors of fiefs 
to aspire at independence and security of property. In a 
convention held at Andeli in 587, to treat of peace between 
Gontran and Childebert II. the nobles obliged these princes to 
renounce the right of revoking their benefices, which hence- 
forward passed by inheritance to their eldest male issue. 

8. It was a necessary consequence of a fief becoming per- 
petual and hereditary, that it should be capable of subinfeu- 
dation ; and that the vassal himself, holding his land of the 
Sovereign by the tenure of military service, should be ena- 
bled to create a train of inferior vassals, by giving to them 
portions of his estate to be held on the same condition, of fol- 
lowing his standard in battle, rendering him homage as their 
lord, and paying, as the symbol of their subjection, a small 
anniial present, either of money, or the fruits of their lands. 



1^0 MODERN HISTORY. ** i-ART I^. 

Thus, in a little time the whole territory in the feudal king- 
doms was either held immediately and m capite of the Sove- 
reign himself, or mediately by inferior vassals of the tenants 
in capite. 

9. It was natural, that in those disorderly times, when the 
authority of government and the obhgation of general laws 
were extremely weak, the superior or over-lord should ac- 
quire a civil and criminal jurisdiction over his vassals. The 
Comites, to whom, as the chief magistrates of police, the ad- 
ministration of justice belonged of right, paid little attention 
to the duties of their office, and shamefully abused their pow- 
ers. The inferior classes naturally chose, instead of seeking 
justice through this corrupted channel, to submit their law- 
suits to the arbitration of their over-lord ; and this jurisdic- 
tion, conferred at lirstby the acquiescence of parties, came 
at length to be regarded as founded on strict right. Hence 
arose a perpetual contest of jurisdiction between the greater 
barons in their own territories and the established judicato- 
ries : a natural cause of that extreme anarchy and disorder 
which prevailed in France during the greater part of thp 
Merovingian period, and which sunk the regal authority to 
the lowest pitch of abasement. In a government of which 
every part was at variance with the rest, it is not surprising 
that a new power should arise, which, in able hands, should 
be capable of enslaving and bringing the whole under sub- 
jection. 

1 0. The Mayor of the Palace, or first officer of the house- 
hold, gradually usurped, under a series of weak princes, the 
whole powers of the Sovereign. This office, from a person- 
al dignity, became hereditary in the family of Pepin Heristel ; 
and his grandson, Pepin le Bref, removing from the throne 
tliose phantoms of the Merovingian race, assumed, by the 
authority of a Papal decree, the title of King, and reigned for 
seventeen years with dignity and success, the founder of the 
second race of the French monarchs known by the name of 
the Carlovingian. 



IV. 

CHARLEMAGNE ^THE NEW EMPIRE OF THE WEST. 

i. Pepin le Bref, with the consent of his nobles, divided^ 
©n his death-bed, the kingdom of France between his sons, 
Charles and Carloman, A. D. 768. The latter dying a few 



SECT. 4. MODERN HISTORY. 157 

years after his father, Charles succeeded to the undivided 
sovereignty. In the course of a reign of forty-tive years, 
Charlemagne (for so he was deservedly styled) extended the 
limits of his empire beyond the Danube ; subdued Dacia, 
Dalmatia, and Istria : conquered and subjected all the bar- 
barous tribes to the banks of the Vistula, made himself mas- 
ter of a great portion of Italy, and succesffully encountered 
the arms of the Saracens, the Huns, the Bulgarians, and the 
Saxons. His war with the Saxons was of thirty years dura- 
tion, and their final conquest was not achieved without an 
inhuman waste of blood. At the request of the Pope, and 
to discharge the obligation of his father Pepin to the Holy 
See, Charlemagne, though allied by marriage to Desiderius 
King of the Lombards, dispossessed that prince of all his do- 
minions, and put a final period to the Lombard dominion fa 
Italy, A. D. 774. 

2. He made his entry into Rome at the festival of Easter, 
was there crowned King of France and of the Lombards, and 
was, by Pope Adrain I., invested with the right of ratifying 
the election of the Popes. Irene, Empress of the East, 
sought to ally herself with Charlemagne, by the marriage of 
her son Constantine to the daughter of this monarch ; but her 
subsequent inhuman conduct, in putting Constantine to death, 
gave ground to suspect the sincerity of her desire for that al- 
liance. 

3. In the last visit of Charlemagne to Italy, he was conse- 
crated Emperor of the West by the hands of Pope Leo III. 
It is probable that had he chosen Rome for his residence and 
seat of government, and at his death transmitted to his suc- 
cessor an undivided dominioo, that great but fallen empire 
might have once more been restored to lustre and respect : 
but Charlemagne had no fixed capital, and he divided, even 
in his lifetime, his dominions among his children, A. D. 806. 

4. The economy of government and the domestic admi- 
nistration of Charlemagne merit attention. Pepin le Bref 
had introduced the system of annual assemblies or parlia- 
ments, held at first in March, and afterwards in May, where 
the chief estates of clergy and nobles were called to delibe- 
rate on the public affairs and the wants of the people. Char- 
lemagne appointed the assemblies to be held twice in the 
year, in spring and in autumn. In the latter all affairs were 
prepared and digested ; in the former was transacted the 
business of legislation ; and of this assembly he made the 
people a party, by admitting from each province or district 
twelve deputies or representatives. The assembly now 
consisted of three estates, who each formed a separate cham- 



158 MODERN HISTORY. DART II. 

ber, which discussed apart the concerns of its own order, 
and afterward? uuilod to communicate tiieir resohitions, or 
to deliberate on tlieir comuion interests. The Sovereign 
was never present, unless when called to ratify the decrees 
of the assembly. 

6. Churloniu2;nc divided the empire into provinces, and 
these into districts, each comprehendini;; a certain number 
of counties. The districts were governed by royal envoys, 
(?hosen from the clorsiv and nobles, and bound to an exact vi- 
sitation to their territories every three moiitlis. These en- 
voys held yearly conventions, at which were present the 
higher clergy and l)arons, to discuss the aft'airs of the district, 
examine the conduct of its magistrates, and redress the 
grievances of individuals. At the general assembly, or 
Champ de Mai, the royal envoys m ide their report to the 
Sovereign, and States ; and thus the ptiblic attention w;vs 
constantly directed to all the concerns of the empire. 

C. The private character of Charlemigne was most ;;mia- 
Ide and respectable. His scMret;iry, Kginhart, has painted 
his domestic life in beautil'ul and simple colouring. The 
economy of his f.unily, wlicn tlu^ dauglitors of the Emperor 
were assiduously emph)yed in s))iuning and houeowiiory, 
and the sons trained by their fit her in the practice of all 
manly exercises, is characteristic of nn age of great sim[)lici- 
ty. This illustrious man died A. D. 811, m the seventy- 
second year of his age. Contemporary with him was Ha- 
roun Alraschid, Caliph of the S.iracens, e(pially celebrated 
Cot liis conquests, excellent policy, and the wisdom and hu- 
manity of his government. 

7. Of all the lawful sons of Charlemagne, Lewis the Dt- 
bonaairc was the only one who sur^ ived him, and who tliere- 
fore succeeded without dispute to the imperial dominions, 
excepting It.dv, which the Emperor had settled on Bernard 
his grandson b\ P»'pin hi- second '■on. 



V. 



ilANNr.R.?, G0\ LR.\M!..N i . \ »D CTSTOMS Of THE AuL: OF CHAR 

LF.MVONF.. 

1. I\ establishing tlic provincial conventions under the 
royal envoys, Charlemagne did not entirely abolish the au- 
thority of the ancient chief magistrates, the Dukes and 
Counts. They continued to command the troops of t)ie , 



SECT. 5. :modeiin iiisTORr. I59 

province, and to make the levies in stated numbers from 
each district. Cavalry was not numerous in the imperia] 
armies, twelve farms being taxed to furnish only one horse- 
man with his armour and accoutrements. The province 
supplied six months ^provisions to its complement of men, 
and the King maintained them during the rest of the cam- 
paign. 

2. The engines for the attack and defence of towns, were, 
as in former times, the ram, the balista, catapulta, testudo, kc. 
Charlemagne had his ships of war stationed in the mouths 
of all the large rivers. He bestowed great attention on com- 
merce. The merchants of Italy and the south of i- ranee 
traded to the Levant, and exchanged the commodities of 
Europe and Asia. Venice and Genoa were rising into com- 
mercial opulence ; and the manufactures of wool, of glass, 
and iron, were successfully cultivated in many of the princi- 
pal towns in the south of Europe. 

3. The value of money was nearly the same as in the Ro- 
man empire in the age of Constantino the Great. The nu- 
merary livre, in the age of Charlemagne, was supposed to 
be a pound of silver, in value about jt*3 sterling ol English 
money. At present the livre is worth lO^d. English. Hence 
we ought to be cautious in forming our estimate of ancient 
money from its name ; and from the want of this caution 
have arisen the most erroneous ideas of the commerce, rich- 
es, and strength of the ancient kingdoms. 

4. The Capiiularia of Charlemagne, compiled into a bo- 
dy A. D. 827, were recovered from oblivion in 1531 and 
1515. They present many circumstances illustrative of the 
manners of the times. Unless in great cities, there were no 
-inns ; the laws obliged every man to give accommodation 
to travellers. The chief towns were built of wood, and even 
the walls were of that material. The state of the mechanic 
arts was very low in Eiirope : the Saracens had brought 
them to greater perfection. Painting and sculpture were 
only preserved from absolute extinction by the existing re- 
mains of anciciit art. Charlemagne appears to have been 
anxious for the impr(»vement of music ; and the Italians are 
said to have instructed his French performers in the art of' 
pl.iyin^ on the organ. Architecture was studied and suc- 
cessfully cultivated in that style termed the Gothic, which 
admits of great beauty, elegance, and magniticence. The 
composition of Mosaic appears to have been an invention of 
those ages. 

5. The knowledge of letters was extremely low, and con- 
fined (0 a few of the ecclesiastics. But Charlemagne gave 



160 UODERN BrSTORV. FAnT 11. 

the utmost encouragement to literature and the sciences, in- 
viting into his dominions of" Fnince men eminent in those 
departments from Italy, and from the Britannic isles, which, 
in those dark ages, preserved more of the light of learning 
than any of the western kingdoms. " J\'e(jue eniin siienda 
*' lavs BritanniiB^ Scotia^ et Ilibcnii(r^ qncc stvdio liberalivm 
" artiuin eo tempore antecellebunt reliquis occidentalibus reg- 
*' nis ; et cufa prasertim monarhoruru^ qui litcranun glori' 
"'• am, alibi aut languentem aut depressam, tn iis regionibus 
" impigrt suscirareiit atque tuebantur.''' Murat. Antiq. Ital. 
Diss. 4.3. The scarcity of books in those times, and the na- 
ture of their subjects, legends, lives of the saints, &c. evince 
the narrow dilfusion of literature. 

fi. The pecuniary lines for homicide, the ordeal or judg- 
ment of God, and judicial combat, were striking peculiari- 
ties in the laws and manners of the northern nations, and 
particularly ot" the Frank-. With this warlike but barbarous 
people, revenge was esteemed honourable and meritorious. 
'J'he hi^ih spiiited warrior chastise<l or vindicated with hiti 
own hand tlie injuries ho had received or inthctcd. The 
magistrate interfered, not to punish, but to reconcile, and 
was satislied if he could persuade the aggressor to pay and 
the injured party to acce[)t the moderate fjne whirji was im- 
posed as the price of blood ; and of which the measiire w.is 
'•^timated according to the rank, the sex, and the country of 
liic personslun. But increasing civihzation abolished those 
barbarous distinctions. We have remarked the equal seve- 
rilv oftlie laws c^f the .Visigoths, both in the crime of murder 
and robbery ; and even among the Franks, in the age of 
Charlemagne, deliberate murder Wiis punished with death. 

7. Bv their ancient laws, a party accused of any crime 
was allowed to produce compurgators, or a certain number 
of witnesses, according to the measure of the offence ; and 
if these declnred upon oatli their belief of his innocence, it 
w;is held a sullvient exculpation. Seventy two compurga- 
tors were rc»['iired to acquit a murderer or an incendiary. 
Thi^ t^agrant perjuries occasioned by this .absurd practice 
})ro!)ahlv gave rise to the trial by ordeal, which was termed, 
as it wai believed to be, the judgment of God. The crimi- 
nal v,iu> ordered, at the option of the judge, to prove his in- 
nocence or guilt, by the ordeal of cold water, of boiling wa- 
ter, or red-'liot iron, lie was tied hand and foot, and thrown 
into a pool, to sink or swim ; he was made to fetch a ring 
from the bottom of a vessel of boihng v ater, or to ^valk 
barefoolpd ororb'jrrinng ploiigli-shareB 5 and history record? 



..i:CT. 6. MODERN HISTORY. 1(51 

examples ol" tiiose wonderful experiments having been un- 
dergone without injury or pain. 

8. Another pecuharity of the laws and manners of the 
northern nations was judicial combat. Both in civil suits 
and in the trial of crimes, the party destitute of legal proofs 
might challenge his antagonist to mortal combat, and rest 
the cause upon its issue. This sanguinary and most iniqui- 
tous custom, which may be traced to this day in the practice 
of duelling, had the authority of law in the court of the Con- 
stable and Marshall, even in the last century, in France and 
England. 



VI. 



RETROSPECTfVE VIEW OK THE AFFAIRS OF THE CHURCH PRE- 
CEDING THE AGE OF CHARLEMAGNE. ^ 

1. The Arian and Pelagian heresies divided the Christian 
church for many ages. In the fourth century, Arius, a pres- 
byter of Alexandria, maintained the separate and inferior na- 
ture of the second Person of the Trinity, regarding Christ as 
the noblest of created beings, througli whose agency the Cre- 
ator had formed the universe. His doctrine was condemned 
in the council of Nice, held by Constantine A. D. 325, who 
afterwards became a convert to his opinions. These for ma- 
ny centuries had an extensive influence, and produced the 
sects of the Ennomians, Semi-Arians, Eusebians, k.c. 

2. In the beginning of the fifth century, Pelagius and Cae- 
lestius, the former a native of Britain, the latter of Ireland, 
denied the doctrine of original sin, and the necessity of di- 
vine grace to enlighten the understanding and purify the 
lieart ; and maintained the sufficiency of man's natural pow- 
ers for the attainment of the highest degrees of piety and 
virtue. These tenets were ably combated by St. Augustine, 
and condemned !)y an ecclesiastical council, but have ever 
continued to tind many supporters. 

3. The most obstinate source of controversy in those ages 
was regarding the worship of images ; a practice which, 
though at tirst opposed by the clergy, was atlerwards, from 
interested motives, countenanced and vindicated by them. 
It was, however, long a subject of division in the church. 
The emperor Leo the Isaurian, A. D. 727, attempted to sup- 
press this idolatry, by the destruction of every statue and 

icture found in the churches, and by punishment of their 

15 



162 MODERN HISTORY. PART If. 

worshippers ; but this intemperate zeal rather increased than 
repressed the superstition. His son Constantine Copronj- 
mus, with wiser pohcy, satisfied himself with procuring its 
condemnation by tlie church. 

4. From the doctrines of the Platonic and Stoic philoso- 
phy, which recommended the purification of the soul, by 
redeeming it from its subjection to the senses, arose the sys- 
tem of penances, mortification, rcliy;iou3 sequestration, and 
monachism. After Constantine had put an end to the perse- 
cution of the Clui.^tjans, many conceived it a duty to pro- 
cure for themselves voluntary grievances and sufl'ering:s. 
They retired into caves and hermitages, and there practised 
the most rigorous mortirtralions of the flesh, by fasting, 
scourging, vigils, &ic. This phrenzy first showed itself in 
Egypt in the fourth century, whence it spread all over the 
East, a great part of Africa, and within the limits of the 
bishopric of Kome. In tlio time of Theodosius, these de- 
votees began to form communities or cctnohia^ each associate 
biiKhng himself by oath to observe the rules of his order. 
St. Benedict introduced monachism into Italy under the 
reign of Totila ; and his order, the Beneihctine, soon became 
extremely numerous, and most opulent, from the many rich 
donations made by the devout and charitable, who conceived 
they profited l)y their prayers. Benedict sent colonies into 
^icily and I'runre, whence they soon spread over all Eu- 
; upe, 

?. In the East, the monachi soUtarii were tirst incorporat- 
ed into canobiu by St. Basil, Bishop of Caesarea, in the mid- 
dle of the fourth century ; and, some time before that period, 
lie first monasteries for women were founded in Egypt by 
he sister of St. Pacomo. From the>e, in the following age, 
prung a variety of orders, under diiVerent rules. The rule 
"f the Canons Regular was framed after the model of the 
,ipostolic life. The Mendicants, to chastity, obedience, and 
poverty, added the obligation of begging alms. The milita- 
ry religious orders were unknown till the age of the holy 
war. (See pnstea, Sect. XVII.§ 3.) The monastic frater- 
nities owed their reputation chielly to the little literary know- 
ledge which, in those ages of ignorance, they exclusively pos- 
sessed. 

6. In the tif\h century arose a set of fanatics termed Sty- 
lites^ or pillar-saints, who passed their lives on the tops of 
pillars of various height. Simeon of Syria lived thirty-seven 
years on a pillar sixty feet high, and died upon it. This 
phrenzy prevailed in the East for many centuries. 

7. Auricular confession, which had been abolished in the 



SECT. 7. MODERN HISTORY. 163 

East in the fourth century, began to be in use in the West in 
the age of Charlemagne, and has ever since prevailed in the 
Romish church. The canonization of saints was for near 
twelve centuries practised by every bishop. Pope Alexan- 
der III., one of the most vicious of men, tirst claimed and 
assumed this right, as the exclusive privilege of the succes- 
sor of St. Peter. 

8. The conquests of Charlemagne spread Christianity in 
the north of Europe ; but all beyond the limits of his con- 
quests was idolatrous. Britain and Ireland had received the 
light of Christianity at an earlier period, but it was after- 
wards extinguished, and again revived under the Saxon Hep- 
tarchy. 



VII. 



EMPIRE CF THE WEST UNDER THE SU(.( hSSORS OF CHARLE- 
MAGNE. 

1. The empire of Charlemagne, riust'd iuuUupported sole- 
ly by his abilities, fell to pieces under his weak posterity. 

•Levvis {le D^botinaire,) the only survivor of his lawful sons, 
w.is consecrated Emperor and Kirii;- of the Franks at Aix- 
le-Chapelle, A. D. 816. Among the tirst acts of his reign 
was the partition of his dominions among his children. To 
Pe)in, his second son, he i;ave Aquitaino, the southern third 
of France ; to Lewis, the youngest, Baviria ; and he asso- 
ciated his eldest son Lotharius with himself in the govern- 
ment of the rest. The three princes quarrelled an. n-: 
themselves, agreeing in nothing but in hostilities agh.-i 
their father. They made open war against him, supi)orted 
by Pope Gregory IV. The pretence was, that the Enjperor 
having a younger son, Charles, born to him after this par- 
tition of his states, w mted to provide this child likewise in 
a share, which couM not be done but at the expense of his» 
elder bpothers. Lewis was compelled to surrender himself 
a prisoner to his rebellious children. They confmed him 
for a year to a monastery ; till, on a new quarrel between 
Lewis the younger and Pepin, Lotharius once more restored 
his father to the throne : but his spirits were broken, his 
health decayed, and he finished, soon after, an inglorious and 
turbulent reign, A. D. 8 10. 

2. The dissensions of the brothers still continued. Lotha- 
rias. now Emperor, and Pepin, hi-s brother's son, having tak- 



164 MODERN HISTORY. PART II. 

en up arms against the two other sons ol Lewis le Debon- 
nai7'€, Lewis of Bavaria, and Charles the Bald, were defeated 
by them in the battle of Fontenai, where 1 ,000,000 are said 
to have fallen in the field. The church, in those times, was 
a prime organ of civil policy. A council of bishops imme- 
diately assembled, and solemnly deposed Lotharius ; assum- 
ing, at the same time, an equal authority over his conquerors, 
whom they permitted to reign, on the express condition of 
submissive obedience to the supreme spiritual authority. Yet 
Lotharius, excommunicated and deposed, found means so 
to accommodate matters with his brothers, that they agreed 
to anew partition of the empire. By the treaty of Verdun, 
A. D. 843, the western part of France, termed Neustria and 
Aquitaine, was assigned to Charles the Bald ; Lotharius, w ith 
the title of Emperor, had the nominal sovereignty of Italy, 
and the real territory of Lorraine, Franche Compte, Prov- 
ence, and the Lyonnois ; the share of Lewis was the king- 
dom of Germany. - 

3. Thus was Germany finally separated from the empire 
of the Franks. On the death of Lotharius, Charles the 
Bald assumed the empire, or, as is said, purchased it from 
Pope John VIIL on the condition of holdingit as vassal to 
the Holy See. This prince, after a we;\k and inglorious 
reign, died by poison, A. D. 877. He was the first of the» 
French monarchs who made dignities and titles hereditary. 
Under the distracted reigns of the Carlovingian Kings, the 
nobles attained great power, and commanded a formidable 
vassalage. They i>trcn<j;lliened themselves in their castles 
and fortresses, andbid defiance to the arm of government, 
while the country was ravaged and desolated by their feuds. 

4. In the reign of Charles the Bald, Fraiue was jdundered 
by the Normans, a new race of Goths from Scandinavia, who 
had begun their depredations even in the time of Charle- 
magne, checked only in their progress by the terror of his 
arms. In A. D. 843, they sailed up the Seine, and plunder- 
ed Rouen ; while another fleet entered the Loire, and laid 
waste the country in its vicinity, carrying, together with its 
spoils, men, women, and children, into captivity. In the fol- 
lowing year they attacked the coasts of England, France, 
and Spiin, but were repelled from the last by the good con- 
duct and courage of its Mahometan rulers. In 845, they 
entered the Elbe, plundered Hamburgh, and penetrated tar 
into Germany. Eric, Kin/r of Denmark, who commanded 
these Normans, sent once more a fleet into the Seine, which 
advanced to Paris. Its inhabitants fled, and the city was 
burnt. Another fleet, with little resistance, pillaged Bor- 



5£eT. 8. MODERN HISTORY. IC') 

deaux. To avert the arms of these ravagers, Charles the 
Bald bribed them with money ; and his successor, Charles 
the Gross, yielded them a part of his Flemish dominions. 
These were only incentives to fresh depredations. Paris 
was attacked a second time, but gallantly defended by Count 
Odo or Eudes, and the venerable Bishop Goslin. A truce 
was a second time concluded, and the barbarians only chemg- 
ed the scene of their attack. They besieged Sens, and 
plundered Burgundy, while an assembly of the States held 
at Mentz deposed the unworthy Charles, and conferred the 
Crown on the more deserving Eudes ; who, during a reign 
of ten years, manfully withstood the Normans. A great 
part of the states of France, however, refused his title to 
the Crown, and gave their allegiance to Charles sirnamed 
the Simple. 

Rollo, the Norman, in 912, compelled the King of France 
to yield him a large portion of the territory of Neustria, and 
to give him his daughter in marriage. The new kingdon) 
was now called Normmdy, of which Rouen \<^as the capital. 
It is the race of those warriors whom we shall see presently 
the conquerors of England. 



VIII. 

EMPIRE OF THE EAST DURING THE EIGHTH AND NINTH 

CENTURIES. 

1. While the new empire of the west was thus rauidly 
lending to dissolution, the empire of Constantinople retained 
yet a vestige of its ancient grandeur. It had lost its African 
and Syrian dependencies, and was plundered by the Sara- 
cens on the eastern frontier, and rava;^cd on the north and 
west by the Abari and Bulgarians. The capital, though 
splendid and refined, was a constant scene of rebellions and 
conspiracies ; and the Imperial family itself, exhibited a se- 
ries of the most horrid crimes and atrocities : one Emperor 
put to death in revenge of murder and incest ; another poi- 
soned by his Q,ueen ; a third assassinated in the bath by his 
own domestics ; a fourth tearing out the eyes of his brothers; 
the Empress Irene, respectable for her talents, but infamous 
for the murder of her only son. Of such complexion was 
that series of princes who swayed the sceptre of the East 
for near 200 years. 

x?. In the latter part of this period, a most violent contro- 
ls* 



166 ^roDL•Ii^ history. part ii. 

versy was maintained respecting the worship of images, and 
they were alternately destro} ed and replaced according to 
the humour of the sovereign. The female sex were their 
most zealous supporters. This was not the only subject of 
division in the Christian church : the doctrines of the Mani- 
chees were then extremely prevalent, and the sword was 
frequently employed to support and propagate their tenets. 

3. The misfortunes of the empire were increased by an 
invasion of the Russians from the Palus Moeotis and Euxine. 
In the reign of Leo, named the philosopher, the Turks, a 
new race of barbarians, of Scythian or Tartarian breed, be- 
gan to make effectual inroads on its territories ; and much 
about the same time its domestic calamities were aggravated 
by the separation of the Greek from the Latin church, of 
which we shall treat under the following section. 



IX. 



STATE OF THE CHURCH IN THE EIGHTH AND NINTH CENTU- 
RIES. 

1. The Popes had begun to acquire a temporal authority 
under Pepin le Bref Sixid Charlemagne, from the donations of 
territory made by those princes, and they were now gradu- 
ally extending a spiritual jurisdiction over all the Christian 
kingdoms. Nicholas I. proclaimed to the whole world his 
paramount judgment in appeal from the sentences of all 
spiritual judicatories ; his power of assembling councils of 
the church, and of regulating it by the canons of those coun- 
cils ; the right of exercising his authority by legates in all the 
kingdoms of Europe, and the control of the Pope over all 
princes and governors. Literary imposture gave its sup- 
port to these pretences : the forgery of the epistles of Isido- 
lus was not completely exposed till the sixteenth centur3^ 
Among the prerogatives of the Popes was the regulation of 
the marriages of all crowned heads by the extreme ex- 
tension of the prohibitions of the canon law, with which 
they alone had the power of dispensing. 

2. One extraordinary event (if true) afforded, in the ninth 
century, a ludicrous interruption to the boasted succession 
of regular bishops from the days of St. Peter, the election of 
a female Pope, who is said to have ably governed the church 
for three years, till detected by the birth of a child. Till 
the reformation by Luther, this event Avas neither regarded 



SECT. 9. MODERN HISTORY. luT 

by the Catholics as incredible, nor disgraceful to the church ; 
since that time its truth or falsehood has been the subject of 
keen controversy between the Protestants and Catholics : 
and the evidence for the latter seems to preponderate. 

3. While the church was thus gradually extending its influ- 
ence, and its head arrogating the control over Sovereign 
Princes, these by a singular interchange of character, seem, 
in those ages, to have lixed their chief attention on spiritual 
concerns. Kings, Dukes, and Counts, neglecting their tem- 
poral duties, shut themselves up in cloisters, and spent their 
lives in prayers and penances. Ecclesiastics were employ- 
ed in all the departments of secular government j and tliese 
alone conducted all public measures and state negociations. 
which of course they directed to the great objects of advan- 
cing the interests of the church, and establishing the para- 
mount authority of the Holy See. 

4. At this period, however, when the Popedom seemed to 
have attained its highest ascendency, it suffered a severe 
wound in that remarkable schism which separated the patri- 
archates of Rome and Constantinople, or the Greek and Lat- 
in churches. The Roman Pontiff had hitherto claimed the 
right of nominating the patriarch of Constantinople. The 
Emperor Michael III. denied this right ; and deposing the 
Pope's patriarch, Ignatius, appointed the celebrated Photius 
in his stead. Pope Nicholas I. resented this affront with a 
high spirit, and deposed and excommunicated Photius, A. D. 
863, who, in his turn, pronounced a similar sentence against 
the Pope The church was divided, each patriarch being 
supported by many bishops and their dependent clergy. — 
The Greek and Latin bishops had long differed in many 
points of practice and discipline, as the celibacy of the cler- 
gy, the shaving their beards, &c. ; but in reality the prime 
source of division was the ambition of the rival Pontiffs, and 
the jealousy of the Greek Emperors, unwilling to admit the 
control of Rome, and obstinately asserting every preroga- 
tive which they conceived to be annexed to the capital of 
the Roman empire. As neither pyrty would yield its pre- 
tensions, the division of the Greek and Latin churches be- 
came from this time permanent. 

5. Amid those ambitious contests for ecclesiastical power 
and pre-eminence, the Christian religion itself was disgraced, 
both by the practice and by the principles of its teachers. 
Worldly ambition, gross voluptuousness, and grosser igno- 
rance, characterised all ranks of the clergy ; and the open 
sale of benefices placed them often in the hands of the bas- 
est and most profligate of men. Yet the character of Pho- 



168 MODERN HISTORY. PART II, 

tJus forms an illustrious exception. Though bred a states- 
man and a soldier, and in both these respects of great repu- 
tation, he attained, by his singular abilities, learning, and 
worth, the highest dignity of the church. His Bibliotheca 
is a monument of the most various knowledge, erudition, 
and critical judgment. 



X, 



OF THE SARACENS IN THE EIGHTH AND NINTH CENTURIES. 

1 . In the beginning of the eighth century, the Saracens sub- 
verted the monarchy of the Visigoths in Spain, and easily 
over-ran the country. They had lately founded in Africa 
the empire of Morocco, which was governed by Muza, vice- 
roy of the Caliph Valid Almanzor. Muza sent his general 
Tariff into Spain, who, in one memorable engagement, 
fought A. D. 713, stripped the Gothic King Rodrigo of his 
crown and life. The conquerors, satisfied with the sove- 
reignty of the country, left the vanquished Goths in posses- 
sion of their property, their laws, and their religion. Abdal- 
lah the Moor married the widow of Rodrigo, and the two na- 
tions formed a perfect union. One small part of the rocky 
country of Asturia alone adhered to its Christian Prince, Pe- 
iagius, who maintained his little sovereignty, and transmitted 
it inviolate to his successors. 

2. The Moors pushed their conquests beyond the Pyren- 
ees ; but division arising among their Emirs, and civil wars 
ensuing, Lewis le Dehonnaire took advantage of the turbu- 
lent state of the country, and invaded and seized Barcelona. 
The Moorish sovereignty in the north of Spain was weaken- 
ed by throwing off its dependence on the Caliphs ; and at 
this juncture the Christian sovereignty of the Asturias, under 
Alphonzo the Chaste, began to make vigorous encroach- 
ments on the territory of the Moors. Navarre and Arragon, 
roused by this example, chose each a Christian King, and 
boldly asserted their liberty and independence. 

3. While the Moors of Spain were thus losing ground in 
the north, they were highly flourishing in the southern parts 
of that kingdom. Abdalrahman, the last heir of the family 
of the Ommiades, (the Abassidae now enjoying the Cali- 
phate,) was recognised as the true representative of the an- 
cient line bv the southern Moors. He fixed the seat of bis 



iECT. 11. -MODERN HISTORY. 169 

government at Cordova, which, from that time, for two 
centuries, was the capital of a splendid monarchy. This pe- 
riod, from the middle of the eighth to the middle of the tenth 
century, is the most brilliant aera of Arabian magnificence. 
Whilst Haroun Alraschid made Bagdat illustrious by the 
splendour of the arts and sciences, the Moors of Cordova vi- 
ed with their brethren of Asia in the same honourable pur- 
suits, and were undoubtedly, at this period, the most enlight- 
ened of the states in Europe. Under a series of able prin- 
ces, the}^ gained the highest reputation, both in arts and 
arms, of all the nations of the West. 

4. The Saracens were at this time extending their con- 
quests in almost every quarter of the world. The Mahom- 
etan religion was professed over a great part of India, and 
all along the Eastern and Mediterranean coast of Africa. — 
The African Saracens invaded Sicily, and projected the con- 
quest of Italy. They actually laid siege to Rome, which 
was nobly defended by Pope Leo IV. They were repulsed, 
their ships were dispersed by a storm, and their army was 
cut to pieces, A. D. 848. 

5. The Saracens might have raised an immense empire, 
had they acknowledged only one head ; but their slntee 
were always disunited. Egypt, Morocco, Spain, India, had 
all their separate sovereigns, who, though they continued to 
respect the Caliph of Bagdat as the successor of the Proj)h- 
et, acknowledged no temporal subjection to his government. 



XI. 



EMPIRE OF THE WEST AND ITALY IN THE TENTH AND ELE- 
VENTH CENTURIES. 

1. The empire founded by Charlemagne now subsisted 
only in name. Arnold, a bastard son of Carloman, possess- 
ed Germaiy. Italy was divided between Guy Duke of Spo- 
letto and Berengarius Duke of Friuli, who had received these 
dutchies from Charles the Bald. France, though claimed 
by Arnold, was governed by Eudes. Thus the empire in 
reality consisted only of a part of Germany, while France, 
Spain, Itdy, Burgundy, aud the countries between the Maes 
and Rhine, were all subject to different powers. The Em- 
perors were at this time elected by the bishops and gran- 
dees, all of whom claimed a voice. In this manner Lewis, 
the son of Arnold, the last of the blood of Charlemagne, was 



170 MODERN HISTORY. PART II. 

chosen Emperor after the death of his father. On his de- 
mise, Otho Duke of Saxony, by his credit with his brother 
grandees, conferred the empire on Conrad Duke of Franco- 
nia, at whose death, Henry, sirnamed the Fowler, son of the 
same Duke Otho, was elected Emperor, A. D. 819. 

2. Henry I. (the Fowler,) a prince of great abilities, intro- 
duced order and good government into the empire. He uni- 
ted the grandees, and curbed their usurpations ; built, embel- 
lished, and fortified the cities ; and enforced with great rig- 
our the execution of the laws in the repression of all enormi- 
ties. He had been consecrated by his own bishops, and 
maintained no corrrespondence with the See of Rome. 

3. His son Otho (the Great,) A. D. 938, again united Ita- 
ly to the empire, and kept the Popedom in complete sub- 
jection. He made Denmark tributary to the Imperial crown, 
annexed the crown of Bohemia to his own dominions, and 
seemed to aim at a paramount authority over all the sove- 
reigns of Europe. 

4. Otho owed his ascendency in Italy to the disorders of 
the Papacy. Formosus, twice excommunicated by Pope 
John VIII. , had himself arrived at the triple crown. On his 
death, his rival, Pope Stephen VII., caused his body to be 
du,^ out of the grave, and after trial for his crimes, condem- 
ned it to be tlung into the Tiber. The friends of Formosus 
fishod 'ip the corpse, and had interest to procure the deposi- 
tion of Stephen, who was strangled in prison. A succeeding 
Pope, Scrgius III., ag'.in dug up the ill-fated carcase, and 
once more threw it into the river. Two infamous women, 
Marozia and Theodorj, managed for many years the Pope- 
dom, and filled the chair of St. Peter with their own gallants, 
or their adultrou? offspring. Such was the state of the Ho- 
ly See, when Berengarius Duke of Priuli disputed the sove- 
reignty of Italy with Hugh of Aries. The Italian states and 
Pope John XII., who took part against Berengarius, invited 
Otho to compose the disorders of the country. He entered 
Italy, defeated Berengarius, and wa's consecrated Emperor 
by the Pope, with the titles of Caesar and Augustus ; in re- 
turn for which honours he confirmed the donations made to 
the Holy See by his predecessors, Pepin, Charlemagne, and 
Lewis the D^bonnaire, A. D. 962. 

5. But John XII. was false to his new ally. He made his 
pence with Berengarius, and both turned their arms against 
the Emperoj. Otho flew back to Rome, and revenged him- 
self by the trial and deposition of the Pope ; but he had 
scarcely left the city, when John, by the aid of his party, 
displaced his rival Leo VIII. Otho once more returned, and 



SECT. 12. MODERN HISTORY. J 7} 

took exemplary vengeance on his enemies, by hangino; one 
half of the senate. Calling together the Lateran Council, he 
created a new Pope, and obtained from the assembled bish- 
ops a solemn acknowledgement of the absolute right of the 
Emperor to elect to the Papacy, to give the investiture of 
the Crown of Italy, and to nominate to all vacant bishoprics ; 
concessions no longer observed than while the Emperor was 
present to enforce them. 

6. Such was the state of Rome and Italy under Otho the 
Great ; and it continued to be much the same under his suc- 
cessors for a centur3^ The Emperors asserted their sove- 
reignty over Italy and the Popedom, though with a constant 
resistance on the part of the Romans, and a general repuo-- 
nance of the Pope, when once established. In those ages of 
ecclesiastical profligacy, it was not unusual to put up the 
Popedom to sale. Benedict VIII. and John XIX., two 
brothers, pubhcly bought the chair of St. Peter, one after 
the other ; and to keep it in their family, it was purchased 
afterwards by their friends for Benedict IX., a child of twelve 
years of age. Three Popes, each pretending regular elec- 
tion, and equal right, agreed first to divide the revenues be- 
tween them, and afterwards sold all their shares to a fourth. 

7. The Emperor Henry III., a prince of great abihty, 
strenously vindicated his right to supply the Pontifical 
Chair, and created three successive Popes without opposi- 
tion. 



XII. 

HISTORY OF BRITAIN FROM ITS EARLIEST PERIOD DOWN TO 
THE NORMAN CONQUEST. 

1 . The history of Britain has been postponed to this time, 
in order that it may be considered in one connected view 
from its earUest period to the end of the Anglo-Saxon go- 
vernment. 

We strive not to pierce through that mist of obscurity 
which veils the original population of the British Isles ; re- 
marking only as a matter of high probability, that they de- 
rived their first inhabitants from the Celtse of Gaul. Their 
authentic history commences with the first Roman invasion : 
and we learn from Caesar and Tacitus, that the country was 
at that period in a state very remote from barbarism. It 
was divided into a number of small independent sovereign- 



172 MODERN HISTORY, PAftT 11. 

ties, each Prince having a regular army and a fixed revenue. 
The manners, language, and religion of the people were th^ 
same with those of the Gallic Celtae. The last w as the Dru- 
idical system, whose intluence pervaded every department 
of the government, and by its power over the minds of the 
people, supplied the imperfection of laws. 

2. Julius Caesar, after the conquest of Gaul, turned his 
eyes towards Britain. He landed on the southern coast of 
the island, 55 B. C. ; and meeting with most obstinate re- 
sistance, though on the whole gaining some advantage, he 
found himself obliged, after a short campaign, to withdraw^ 
for the winter into Gaul. He returned in the following sum- 
mer with a great increase of force, an army of 20,000 foot, 
a competent body of horse, and a fleet of 800 sail. The in- 
dependent chiefs of the Britons united their forces under Cas- 
sibelanus King of the Trinobantes, and, encountering the le- 
gions with great resolution, displayed all the ability of prac- 
tised warriors. But the contest was vain. Caesar advanced 
into the country, burnt Verulamium, the capital of Cassibe- 
lanus, and, after forcing the Britons into articles of submis- 
sion, returned to Gaul. 

3. The domestic disorders of Italy gave tranquillity to the 
Britons for near a century ; but, in the reign of Claudius, the 
conquest of the island was determined. The Emperor land- 
ed in Britain, and compelled the submission of the south- 
eastern provinces. Ostorius Scapula defeated Caractacus, 
who was sent prisoner to Rome. Suetonus Paulinus, the 
general of Nero, destroyed Mona, (Anglesey, or, as others 
think, Man,) the centre of the Druidical superstition. The 
Iceni, (inhabitants of Norfolk and Suffolk,) under their Q,ueen 
Boadicea, attacked several of the Roman settlements. Lon- 
don, with its Roman garrison, was bu*rnt to ashes. But a de- 
cisive battle ensued, in which 80,000 of the Britons fell in 
the field, A. D. 61. The reduction of the island, however, 
was not completed till thirty years afterwards, in the reign 
of Titus, by Julius Agricola ; who, after securing the Ro- 
man province against invasion from the Caledonians by walls 
and garrisons, reconciled the southern inhabitants, by the 
introduction of Roman arts and improvements, to the go- 
vernment of their conquerors. Under Severus, the Roman 
province was far extended into the north of Scotland. 

4. With the decline of the Roman power in the west, the 
southern Britons recovered their liberty, but it was only 
to become the object of incessant predatory invasion from 
their brethren of the north. The Romans, after rebuilding 

he wall of Severus, finally bid adieu to Britain, A. D. 448. 



SECT. 12. MODERN HISTORY. ilo 

The Picts and Caledonians now broke down upon the south, 
ravaging and desohiting the country, though without a pur- 
pose of conquest, merely, as it appears, for the supply of 
their temporary wants. After repeated application for aid 
from Rome, without success, the Britons meanly solicited 
the Saxons of Germany for succour and protection. 

5. The Saxons received the embassy with great satisfac- 
tion. Britain had been long known to them in their piratical 
voyages to its coasts. They landed to the amount of 1600, 
under the command of Hengist and Horsa, A. D. 450, and, 
joining the South Britons, soon compelled the Scots to re- 
tire to their mountains. They next turned their thoughts to 
the entire reduction of the Britons, and receiving large re- 
inforcements of their countrymen, after an obstinate contest 
of near 150 years, they reduced the whole of England under 
the Saxon government. Seven distinct provinces became 
as many independent kingdoms. 

6. The history of the Saxon Heptarch}^ is uninteresting, 
from its obscurity and confusion. It is sufficient to mark 
the duration of the several kingdoms till their i^riion under 
Egbert. Kent began in 455, and lasted, under seventeen 
princes, till 827, when it was subdued by the West Saxons. 
Under Ethelbert, one of its Kings, the Saxons were convert- 
ed to Christianity by the Monk Augustine. Northurriber- 
land began in 597, and lasted, under twenty-three Kings, till 
792. East Anglia began in 575, and ended in 793. Mer- 
cia subsisted from 582 to 827. Essex had fourteen princes 
from 527 to 747 ; Sussex only live ; before its reduction 
under the dominion of the West Saxons, about 600. Wes- 
sex, which fmally subdued and united the whole of the Hep- 
tarchy, began in 519, and had not subsisted above eighty 
years, when Cadwalla, its King, conquered and annexed 
Sussex to his dominions. As there was no fixed rule of suc- 
cession, it was the policy of the Saxon princes to put to 
death all the rivals of their intended successor. From this 
cause, and from the passion for celibacy, the royal families 
were nearly extinguished in the kingdoms of the Heptarchy ; 
and Egbert, Prince of the West Saxons, remained the sole 
surviving descendant of the Saxon conquerors of Britain. 
This circumstance, so favourable to his ambition, prompted 
him to attempt the conquesft of the Heptarchy. He suc- 
ceeded in that enterprise ; and by his victorious arms and 
judicious policy, the whole of the separate states were unit- 
ed into one great kingdom, A. D. 827, near 400 years after 
the first arrival of the Saxons in Britain. 

7. England, thus united, was far from enjoying tranquilli- 

16 



74 MGLiLr...'^ ii;siGRV. iart ii. 

y. The pini'iiciii Normans or Danes had lor fifty years de- 
sohated her coasts', and continued for some centuries after 
this period to be a perpetual scourge to the country. Un- 
der Alfred (the Great), grandson of Egbert, the kingdom 
was from this cause reduced to extreme wretchedness. The 
heroic Alfred, in one year, engaged and defeated the Danes 
in eight battles ; when a new irruption of their countrymen 
forced him to solicit a peace, which these pirates constantly 
interrupted by new hortililies. The monarch himself was 
compelled to seek hi^i safety for many months m an obscure 
quarter of the country, till the disorders of the Danish army 
oflered a fair oj)portunity, wliirh he improved to the entire 
defeat of his enemies. He miglit have cut them all lo pie- 
ces, but he chose rather to spare and to incorpor;ite them 
with his English subjects. This clemency did not restrain 
them frOiii attempting a new invasion ; but they were again 
defeated with immense loss : and the extreme severity now 
from necessity sliown to the vanquished, had the etlect of 
suspending, ibr several years, the Danish depredations. 

8. Alfred, wliether considered in his j)ubhc or i)rivate 
character deserves to be reckoned among the best and great- 
est of princes. He united the most enterprising and heroic 
spirit with consummate prudence and moderation ; the ut- 
most vigour of authority with the most engaging gentleness 
oi' manner ; the most exemplary justice with the greatest 
lenity ; the talents of the statesman, and the man of letters, 
with tlie intrepid resolution and conduct of the general. He 
found the kingdom in the most miserable condition to which 
anarchy, domestic barbarism, and foreign hostility, could re- 
duce it : he brought it to a ])itch of eminence surpassing in 
many respects, the situation of its contemporary nations. 

9. Alfred divided England into counties, with their subdi- 
visions of hundreds and tithings. The tithing or decermary 
consisted of ten families, over which jjresided a tithing-man, 
or borgholder ; and ten of these composed the hundred. 
Every householder was answerable for his family, and the 
tithing-man, for all within his tithing. In the decision of dil- 
ferences, the tithing-man had the assistance of the rest of hi» 
decennary. An appeal lay from the derennary to the court 
o[ the hundred, which was assembled every four weeks ; 
and the cause was tried by a jury of twelve freeholders, 
sworn to do impartial justice. An annual meeting of the 
hundred was held for the regulation of the police of the dis- 
trict. The county-court, superior to that of the hundred, 
and consisting of all the freeholders, met twice a year, after 
3Iichaelmus and Easter, to determine appeals from the hun- 



SECT. 12. MODERN HISlORV. IIC 

dreds, and settle disputes between the inliabitatits of different 
hundreds. The ultimate appeal from all theee courts lay to 
the King in council ; and the I'ret^uency of these appeals 
prompted Alfred to the most extreme circumspection in the 
appointment of his judges. He composed, for the regulation 
of these courts, and of his kingdom, a body of laws, the ba- 
sis of the common law of England. 

10. Alfred gave every encouragement to the cultivation: 
of letters, as the best means of eradicating barbarism. He 
invited from every quarter of Europe, the learned to reside 
in his dominions, established schools, and is said to have 
founded the University of Oxford. He was himself a rtiost 
accomidished scholar fur the age in wliich he lived, as ap- 
pears trom the works he composed ; poetical apologues, the 
translation of the histories of Bede and Orosius, and of Boe- 
thius on the Consolation of Philosophy. In every view of 
his character we must regard Alfred the Great as one of the 
best and wisest men that ever occupied the regal seat. He 
died in the vigour of his age, A. D. 901, after a glorious 
reign of twenty-nine years and a half. 

il. The admirable institutions of Alfred were partially 
and feebly enforced under his successors ; and England, still 
a prey to the ravages of the Danes and intestine disorder, re- 
lapsed into confusion and barbarism. The reigns of Ed- 
ward the elder, the son of Alfred, and of his successors, 
AtheUtan, Edmund, and Edred, were tumultuous and anar- 
chical. The clergy began to extend their authority over the 
throne, and a series of succeeding Princes were the obsequi- 
ous slaves of their tyranny and ambition. Under Ethelred, 
A. D. 981, the Danes seriously projected Ihc conquest ot* 
England, and led by Sweyn King of Denmark, and Olaus 
King of Norway, made a formidable descent, won several 
important battles, and were restrained from the destruction 
of London only by a dastardly sul.unission, and a promise of 
tribute to be paid by the inglorious Ethelred. The English 
nobility were ashamed of their Prince, and seeing no other 
relief to the kingdom, made a tender of the crown to the 
Danish monarch. On the death of Sweyn, Ethelred attempt- 
ed to regain his kingdom, but found in Canute the son of 
Sweyn, a Prince determined to support his claims, which, 
on the death of Ethelred, were gallantly but ineffectually re- 
sisted by his son Edmund Ironsid-3. At length a partition ol 
the kingdom was made between Canute and Edmund, wliich. 
after a few months, the Danes annulled bj' the murder oi 
Edmnnil, thus securing to tlieir monarch Canute the throne* 
of all r,ni-l;in<l. A. D. 1017. Edmund U-i' (wo ohn(^rp-i. E.' 



lliG MODERN HISTORV. PART II. 

s;ar Atheling, and Margaret, aflcrwards wilo to !Malcolm Can- 
more, King of Scotland. 

12. Canute, the most powerful monarch of his time. So c - 
reign of Denmark, Norway, and England, snayed ibr seven- 
teen years the sceptre of England with a lirm and vigorous 
hand ; severe in the beginninu- of his reign, while his govern- 
ment was insecure, but mild and eqaitable when possessed 
of a settled dominion. He lel\ (A. D. 103G) three sons, 
Sweyn, who was crowned King of Norway, Harold, who 
succeeded to the throne of England, and Hardicanutc, Sove- 
reign of Denmark. Harold, a merciless tyrant, died in the 
fourth year of his reign, and was succeeded by Hardicanute, 
who, after <i violent administration of two years, died in a fit 
of debauch. The English seized this opportunity of shaking 
off the Danish yoke ; awd they conferred the crown on Ed- 
ward, a younger son of Ethelred, rejecting tiie preferable 
.ght of Edgar Atheling, the son of Eihnund, who, unfortu- 
nately for his pretentions, was, at this time, abroad in Hun- 
gary. Edward, surnamed the Confessor, (A. D. 104 1,) 
leigned weakly and ingloriously for twenty-five years. The 
lebellious attempts of (iodwin. Earl of Wessex, aimed at no- 
thing less than an usurpation ol" ihe <'rovvn ; and, on his death, 
his son Harold, cherisliing secretly the same views of ambi- 
tion, had the address to secure to his interest a very formi- 
Jable party in the kingdom. Edward, to defeat these views, 
bequeathed the crown to William Duke of Normany, a 
Prince whose great abilities rtnd personal prowess had ren- 
dered his name illustrious over Europe. 

13. On the death of Edward the Confessor, 10G6, the 
usurper Harold took possession of the throne, which the in- 
trepid Noruian determined immediately to reclaim as his in- 
lieritance of right. He made the most formidable prepara- 
rions, aided in this age of romantic enter])rise by many of 
the Sovereign Princes, and a vast body of the nobility, from 
die dirVerent continental kingdoms. A Norwegian Heet of 
300 sail entered the Humber, and, diseml)arking their troops, 
were, after one successi'ul engagement, deleated by the En- 
glish army in the interest of Harold. William landed his 
army on the coast of Sussex, to the amount of G0,Ot)O ; and 
the English, under Harold, tlushed with their recent success, 
hastily ad\anced to meet him, imprudently resolving to ven- 
ture all on one decisive battle. The total rout and discom- 
fiture of the English army in the tield of Hastings, (14th 
October 10G6,) and the death of Harold, aAer some fruitless 
attempts of further resistance, put William Duke of Norman 
•1v in posgef'^ion of the throne of England. 



XTII. 

OF THE GOVERNMLNT, LAWS, AND MANNERS OP THE ANGLO- 
SAXONS. 

1. The government, laws, and manners of the Anglo-Sax- 
ons" have become the subject of enqniry to modern writers, 
as beinii; supposed to have had their induence in the forma- 
tion of the British constitution. The government of the 
Saxons was the same with that of all the ancient Germanic 
nations, and they naturally retained in their ne\>' settlement 
in Britain a policy similar to their accustomed usages. Their 
subordination was chiellj a military one, the King having no 
more authority than what belonged to the general, or military 
leader. There was no strict rule of succession to the throne ; 
for although the King was generally chosen from the family 
of the last Prince, the choice usually fell on the person of 
the best capacity for government, in some instances the 
destination of the last Sovereign regulated the choice. We 
know very little of the nature cf the Anglo-Saxon govern- 
ment, or of th» distinct rights of the Sovereign and people. 

2. One institution common to all li)e kingdoms of the iiep- 
tarchy was the Wittenagemot, or as-sembly of the wise men,, 
whose consent was requisite for enacting laws, and ratifying 
the chief acts of public administration. The bishops and 
abbots formed a part of this assembly, as did the aldermen, 
or earls and govefnors of counties. The VVites, or wise 
men, are discriminated iVom the j)relatcs and nobility, and 
have by some been supposed to have been tiie re[)resentative3 
of the commons. But we hoar nothing of election or repre- 
sentation in those periods, and we must therefore presume 
♦hat they were merely landholder^, or men of considerable 

-late, who, from their wri<iht and consequence in the coun- 
iry, were held entitled, without any election, to takeasharc 
in the public deliberations. 

3. The Anglo-Saxon government was extremely aristocra- 
tical ; the regal authority being very limited, the rights of 
the people little known or regarded, and the nobility possess- 
ing much uncontrolled and lawless rule over their depend- 
ents. The ofhees of government were hereditary in their 
families, and they commanded the whole military force of 
their respective provinces. So strict was the clitntela be- 
tween these nobles and their vassals, that the murder of a 
vassal was compensated by a fine paid to his lord. 

4. There were three ranks ofthe people,the Bobles,thefree5. 
and the slaves. The nobles were either the King's thanes,. 

16* 



178 MODEnN lilJ^lORV. PAKT If. 

who held their lanJs directly from the Sovereign, or lo?iser 
thanes, who held lands from the loriner. One law of Athel- 
stan declared, that a merchant who had made three voyages 
on his own account was entitled to the dignity of thane ; 
another decreed the same rank to a ceorle, or husbandman, 
who was able to purchase five hides of land, and had a chap- 
el, a kitchen, a hall, and a bell. The ceorlrs, or freemen of 
the lower rank, occupied the firms of the thanes, foi which 
they paid rent, and they were removable at the pleasure of 
their lord. The slaves or villains were either employed in 
domestic purposes, or in cultivating the lands. A master 
was fined for the murder of his slave ; and, if he mutilated 
bim, the slave recovered his freedom. 

5. Under this aristocratical government there were some 
iraces of the ancient Germanic democracy. 'J'he courts of 
♦he decennary, the hundred, and the county, were a conside- 
rable restraint on the power of the nobles. In the county- 
courts the freeliolders met twice a-year to determine appejils 
by the majority of sufiraires. 'J'he alderman presided in 
those courts, but had no vote : he received a third of the 
fines, the remaining two-thirds devolving to the King, which 
was a great part of the royal revenue. Pecuniary fines were 
the ordinary atonement for oxcry species of crime, and the 
modes of proof were the ordeal by fire or water, or by com- 
purgators. (See supra, Part II. 'Sect. V. 6 7.) 

iu As to the military force, the exjjense of defending the 
state lay equally on all the land, every dX'Q hides or plough? 
being taxed to I'urnish a soldier. There were '243, bOO hides 
ui Knglan<l, consequently the onlinary military force consist- 
ed of 4a, 720 men. 

7. The King's revenue, besides thft. fines imposed by the 
.ourts, consisted partly of his demesnes of property-lands, 
which were extensive, an«l partly in imposts on boroughs and 
sea-ports. The Danegelt was a tax imposed by the states, 
either for payment of tribute exacted by the Danes, or for 
defending the kingdom against them. By the custom of ga- 
velkind, the land was divided equally among all the male 
children of the deceased proprietor. F)Ook-land was that 
which was held by charter, and folk-l:ind, wh;;t was held by 
tenants removable at pleasure. 

8. The Anglo-Saxons were behind the Normans in every 
point of civilization ; and the conquest was therefore to them 
a real advantage, as it led to material improvement in arts, 
science, government, and laws. 



SECT. 14. MODERN HISTORY. 179 

XIV. 

■^TATE OF EUROPE DURING THE TENTH, ELEVENTH, AND 
TWELFTH CENTURIES. 

1. France, from the extent and splendour of its dominion 
under Charlemagne, had dwindled to a shadow under his 
weak posterity. At the end of the Carlovingian period, 
France comprehended neither Normandy, Dauphine, nor 
Provence. On the death of Lewis V. (Faineant,) tlie crown 
ought to have devolved on his uncle, Charles of Brabant, as 
the last male of the race of Charlemagne ; but Hugh Capet, 
Lord of Picardy and Champagne, the mo^t powerful of the 
French nobles, was elected Sovereign by the voice ot his 
brother peers, A. D. 987. The kingdom, torn by parties, 
suffered much domestic misery under the reign of Hugh, 
and that of his successor Robert, who was the victim of Pa- 
pal tyranny, for daring to marry a distant cousin without the 
dispensation of the church. 

2. The prevailing passion of the times was pilgrimage and 
chivalrous cntt rprise. In this career of adventure the Nor- 
mans most remarkably distinguished themselves. In 983, 
they relieved the prince of Salerno, by rxprlling the Sara- 
cens from his territory. They did a similar service to Pope 
P.enedict VIII. and the Duke of Capua ; while another band 
of their countrymen fought fir.-t against the Greeks, and after- 
wards against the Popes, always selling their services to those 
who best rewarded them. William Firrabras, and his broth- 
ers, Humphrey, Robert, and Richard, kept the Pope a prison- 
er for a year at Benevento, and forced the court of Rome to 
yielil Capua to Richard, and Apulia and Calabria to Robert, 
with the investiture of Sicily if he should gain the country 
from the Saracens. In 1 101, Rogcro the Nonn;ui completed 
the conquest of Sicily, of which the Popes continued to be 
the lords paramount. 

3. The north of Europe was in those periods extremely 
barbarous. Russia received the Christian religion in the 
eighth century. Sweden, after its conversion in tho ninth 
century, relapsed into idolatry, as did Hungary and Bohe- 
mia. The Constantinopolitan empire defended its frontiers 
with dilhculty against the Bulgr.rians on the west, and against 
the T\irks and Arabians on the east and north. 

4. In Italy, excepting the territory of the Popedom, the 
principalities of the independent nobles, and the states of 
Venice and Genoa, the greatest part of the country was 
now in the possession of the Normans. Venice and Genoa 



JBO MODERN HISTORY. t-.ifll II. 

were rising gradually to great opulence from commerce. 
Venice was for some ages tributary' to the Emperors of Ger- 
many. In the tenth century its Doge assumed the title of 
Duke of Dalmatia. of which the republic Lad acquired the 
property by conquest, as well as of Istria, Spalatro, Kagusa, 
and Narenz.n. 

r>. Spain was chiofly possessed by the Moors : the Chris- 
tians retaining only about a fourth of the kingdom, namely, 
Asturia, part of Castile and Catalonia, Navarre, and Arragon. 
Portugal was likewise ormpied by the Moors. Tlieir capi- 
tal was Cordova, the scat of luxury and magnificence, la 
the tenth century tiie Moorish dominions were split among 
a number of petty sovereigns, who were constantly at war 
with each other ;' but ^uch, unfortunately, was likewise the 
situation of the Christian part of the kingdom; and it was 
no uncommon policy for tiie Chrisiian Princes to form alli- 
ances With the Moors against each ulher. Uesides these, the 
rouiitrv abounded with independent lords, who made war 
their protession, and performed the oflice of champions in 
deciding; the quarrels of ])rinces, ur enlisting ihen.selves in 
their service, wiih all their vassals and attendants. Of these, 
termed Cavalleros amlanies, or knights-errant, the most dis- 
tinguished was fiodrigo the Cid, who undertook for his So\e- 
reign, Alphonse King of Old Castile, to conquer the king<loni 
of New Castile, and achieved it with success, obtaining the 
government of Valencia as the reward of his services. 

6. The contentions between the Imperial and Pa])al pow- 
ers make a distinguished tigure in those agej?. Henry III. 
vindir;»lcd the Imperial right to fill the chair of St. Peter, 
:md nonnnated ihree successive Popes, without (he interven- 
tion of a council of the church. But in the minority ol'Uk, 
son Henry IV., this right wn^ freciucntly interrupted, too 
Ale?.ancier 11. kept his seat, though the Kmpcror named an- 
other in his \n:\cv. \[ was the lot of this Emperor to expe- 
rience the utmo-t oxttM.t of Papal insolence and tyranny. 
After a spirited contest with Gregory VII., in which the Pope 
was twice his prisoner, and the Emperor as often cxcomniu- 
nicate.l and de[)0sed, Henry fell at leni,4h the victim of ec- 
clesiastical vengeance. I'rban II., a successor of Gregory, 
prompted the two sons of Henry to rebel against their fa- 
ther ; and his misfortunes were terminated by im])risonment 
and death in 1 lu6. The siime contest went on under a suc- 
cession of Popes and Emperors, but ended commonly in 
favour of the former. Frederic I. (Barbarossa), a prince of 
high spirit, after an indignant denial of the supremacy of 
Alexander 111., and a refu.'sal of the customary homage, was 



KCT. 15. MODERN HISTORY. 181 

at length compelled to kiss his feet, and appease His Holi- 
ness, by a large cession of territory. Pope Celestiniis kick- 
ed oil the Imperial crown of Henry VI. while doing liomage 
on his knees, but made amends for this insolence by the 
gift of Naples and Sicily, irom which Henry had expelled 
the Normans. These territories now became an apj)anage 
of the empire, 1194. — The succeeding Popes rose on the 
\ pretensions of their predecessors, till at length Innocent HI., 
in the beginning of the thirteenth century, established the pow- 
f^i's of the Popedom on a settled basis, and obtained a positive 
acknowledgment of the Papal supremacy, or the right ^/nnci- 
litcr ctjinalitcr to confer the Imperial crown. It was the 
nie Pope Innocent whom we shall j)jesently see the dispos- 
of the crown of England in the reign of the tyrant John. 



XV. 



f HISTORV Ol ENGLAND IN THE ELEVKNTH, TWELFTH, AND 
PARI* OF THE THIRTEENTH CENTURIES. 



SUl 



1. The consequence of the battle of Hastings was the 
bmission of all England to William the Conqueror. The 
character of tliis prince was spirited, haughty, and tyranni- 
cal, yet not without a portion of the generous afiections. 
He disgusted his English subjects by the strong partiality he 
showed to his Norm-in foHo^Grs, preferring tliem to aii oilict-s- 
of- trust and dignity. A conspiracy arose from these discon- 
tents, which William defeated, and avenged with signal rigour 
and cruelty. He determined henceforward to treat the Eng- 
lish as a conquered people ; a policy which involved his 
reign in perpetual commotions, which, while they robbed 
|him of all peace of mind, airgravated the tyranny of his dis- 
position. To his own children he owed the severest of hi*- 
kroubles. His eldest son Robert rose in rebellion, to wrest 
B'rom him the sovereignty of Maine ; and his foreign subject?^ 
took part with the rebel. William led against them an army 
I of the English, and was on the point of perishing in fight by 
* his son's hand. Philip I. of Franco had aided this rebellion, 
which was avenged by William, who carried havoc and de- 
vastation into the heart of his kingdom, but was killed in the 
enterprise by a fdl from his horse, 1U87. He bequeathed 
lOnglaiid to William his second son ; to Uobert he lett Nor- 
mandy ; and to Henry, his youngest son, the property oi 
his mother Matilda 



1G2 MODKRN IIISTORV. PART 11 

2. Willi;im the Conijiioror iritroiluced into England l!»e 
feudal liw, dividini; the whole kingdom, except the ro^-al ih^- 
niesoes, into baronies, and bestowing the most of these, under 
the tenure of military service, on his Norman foUov/ers. liy 
the forest laws, he reserveil to himself the exclusive privi- 
lege of killing game all ovei- the kinc:dom ; a restriction re- 
sented by his subjects above every other mark of servitude. 
Preparatory to tlie introduction of the leudal tenures, he 
planned and accomplished a general survey of all the lands 
in the kingdom, with a di>itinct specification of their extent, 
nature, value, names ot" their proprietors, and an enumera- 
tion of every clnss of inhabitants who lived on them. This 
most valuable record, calletl Duontsday-booh^ is preserved in 
the English l!xchecpier, and is now printed. 

3. William II. (Rufus) inherited the vices without any of 
the virtues of iiis father. His rci^n is distinguished by no 
event of importance ; and, after ihe defeat of one conspiracy 
in its outset, presents nothing but u dull career of unresisted 
despotism. Af'ter a reign of thirteen years he was killed 
when hunting, by the random shot of an arrow, 1 100. The 
crown of England should have devolved on hif elder brother 
Robert ; but his absence on a crusade in Palestine made way 
for the anopposed succession of his younger brother Henry, 
who, by his marriage with Matilda, the niece of Edgar Athe- 
ling, united the last remnant of the Saxon with the Norman 
line. With the most criminal ambition he now invaded his 
brother's dominions of Normandy ; and Robert, on his re- 
turn, was deleated in battle, and detained for lite a prisoner in 
England. The crimes of Henry were expiated by his mis- 
fortimes. His only son was drowned in his passage from 
Normandy. Hi'^ daughter Matilda, married fir^t to the Em- 
peror Henry V'.an«l allerwardsto CieolTrey Plantagenet of An- 
jou, was destined to be his successor ; but the popularity of 
his nephew Stejdjon, son of the count of Blois, defeated this 
intention. Henry l.died in Normandy, alter areign ol'thirty- 
five years, A. D. 113o; and, in spite of his destination to 
JNlatilda, Stephen seized the vacant throne. The ])arty oi 
^latilda, headed by her natural brother, the Earl of Glouces- 
■or, engajred, defeated, and made Stephen prisoner. Matil- 
da, in her turn, mounted the throne ; but, unpopular from the 
'yranny of her disposiiion, slie was solemnly deposed by the 
prevailing party of her ri\al, and Stej)hen once more restor- 
ed. He found, however, in Henry Plantagenet, the son of 
Matilda, a more fornudable competitor. Of a noble and in- 
trepid spirit, u bile yet a boy, he resolved to reclaim his he- 
reditary crown ; and, landing in England, won by his prow- 



SECT. lo. MODERN HISTORY. 183 

€ss, and the favour of a just cause, a great part of the king- 
dom to his interest. By treaty with Stephen, who was al- 
lowed to rcisn for life, he secured the succession at liis death, 
which soon after ensued, 1154. 

4. Henry H-, a prince in every sense deserving of the 
throne, hegan his reign with the reformation of all the abus- 
es of the government of his predecessors ; revoking all im- 
politic grants, abolishing partial inmiimities, regulating the 
administration of justice, and estabhshing the freedom of the 
towns by charters, which are at this day the basis of the na- 
lional libert}'. Ha])py in the affections of his people, and 
powerful in the vast extent of additional territory he enjoy- 
ed on the continent in right of his father and of his wife, the 
heiress of a great portion of France, his reign had every 
promise of prosperity and happiness ; but, tVom one fatal 
source, these pleasinji; prospects were all destroyed. Thom- 
as Becket was raised by Henry from obscurity to the ofiice 
of chancellor of England. On the vacancy of tlie see of 
Canterbury, the King, desirous of his aid in the correction of 
ecclesiastical abuses, conferred the primacy on his favourite : 
and the arrogant Becket availed himself of that autiiority to 
abase the prerogative of his sovereign, and exalt the spiriiu- 
al power above the crown. It was disputed whether a priest 
could be tried for a murder, and punished by the civil court. 
It was determined in the affirmative by the council of Clar- 
endon, against the oj)inion of I>ecket. Pope Alexander HI. 
anntilK'd the decree of the council ; and Becket, wiio took 
jKiit witli the Pope, was deprived by Henry of all his digni- 
ties and estates. He avenged himself by the excominunica- 
lion of the Kind's ministers ; and Henry, in return, proliibit- 
ed all intercourse with the See of Rome. At length both 
I'urties tbund it their interest to come to a good understand- 
ing. Becket was restored to favour, and reinstated in his 
primicy, when the increasing insolence of his demeanour 
drew from the King some hasty expressions of indignation, 
niiich his servants interpreted into a sentence of proscrip- 
tion, and, trusting that the deed would be grateful to their 
njaster, murdered the prelate while in the act of celebra- 
ting vespers at the altar. For this shocking action Henry 
expressed the regret which he sincerely felt, and the Pope 
indulgently granted his j)ardon, on the assurance of his duti- 
ful obedience to the Holy Church. 

5. The most important event of the reign of Henry II. 
wus the conquest of Ireland. The Irish, an early civilized 
people, and among the firsL of the nations of the West who 
embraced the Christian religion, were, by frequent invasions 



184 MODERN' HISTORY. PART II. 

of the Danes, and their own domestic commotions, rephing- 
ed into barbarism for many age^^. In the twelfth century 
the kingdom consisted of live separate sovereignties, Ulster, 
Leinster, Munster, Meath, and Connanght ; but these were 
subdivided among an inlinite number of petty chiefs, owning 
a very weak allegiance to their respective sovereigns. Der- 
mot Macmorrogh, expelled from his kingdom of Leinster 
for a rape on the daughter o/ the Kingof Meath, soiight pro- 
tection from Henry, and engaged to become his I'eudatory, 
if he should recover his kingdom by the aid of the English. 
Henry empowered his subjects to invade Ireland : and. 
while Strongbow Earl of Pembroke and his followers were 
laying waste the country, landed in the island himself in 1 1 72, 
and received the submission of a great nunjber of the inde- 
pendent chiels. Roderick O'Connor, Prince of Connanght, 
■whom the Irish elected nominal Sovereign of all the provin- 
ces, resisted for three years the arms of Henry, but finally 
acknowledged his dominion by a solemn embassy to the 
King at Windsor. T he terms of the submission were, an an- 
nual tribute of every tenth hide of land, to be a|}plicd for the 
support of government, and an oldigation ot' allegiance to the 
cT'.^wn ef England ; on which conditions the Irish should re- 
tain their possessions, and Roderick his kiniidom ; except 
the territory of the Pale, or that part which the English bar- 
ons had subdued before the arrival of Henry. 

C>. Henry divided Ireland into counties, appointed sheiifl'^ 
in each, and introduced the laws of laigland into the teri'i- 
tory of the Pale ; the rest of the kingdom being regulated by 
their ancient laws, till the reign of Edw.ird 1., when at the 
request of the nation, the Eii^lish laws were extended to the 
Avholc kingdom ; and in the first Irish Parliament, which was 
held in the s:mie reign. Sir Jtdui \Vogan presided as deputy 
of the Sovereign. Prom that time, lor some centuries, there 
was little intercourse between the kingdoms ; nor was the 
island considered as full\ subdued till the reign of Elizabeth 
:ind of her successor .lames I. 

7. The latter part of the reign of Henry II. was clouded 
by domestic misfortune. His children, Henry, Richard, 
Gebfi're3% and John, instigated by their unnatural mother, 
rose in rebelUon, and with the aid of Lewis VI I. King of 
France, prepared to dethrone their father. While oj)posing 
them with spirit on the continent, his kingdom was invaded 
by the Scots under Willianj (the Lyon). He hastened back 
to England, defeateil the Scots, and made their King his 
prisoner. Two of his sons, Henry and Geoffrey, expiated 
their offences by an early death ; but Richard, once reconci- 



S.ECJ. lb. MODERN HISTORY. itv 

led, was again seduced from his allegiance, and, in league 
with the King of France, plundered his father's continental 
dominions. The spirit of Henry was unequal to his domes- 
tic misfortunes, and he died of a broken heart in the 58th 
year of his f^e, 1 189, an ornament to the English throne, 
and a prince surpassing all his contemporaries in the valua- 
ble qualities of a sovereign. To him England owed her 
first permanent improvements ia arts, in laws, in govern- 
ment, and in civil liberty. 

8. Richard I. (Coeur de Lion,) immediately on his acceg- 
sion, embarked for the Holy Land, on a crusade against the 
Fnfidels, after plundering his subjects of an immense sum of 
money to defray the charges of the enterprise. Forming a 
league with Philip Augustus of France, the two monarchs 
joined their forces, and, acting for some time in concert, 
were successful in the taking of Acra or Ftolemais ; but 
Philip, jealous of his rival's glory, soon returned to France, 
while Richard had the honour of defeating the heroic Sala- 
din in the battle of Ascalon, with prodigious slaughter of his 
enemies. He prepared now for the siege of Jerusalem ; but, 
finding his army wasted with famine and fitigue, he was 
compelled to end the war by a truce with Saladin, in which 
he obtained a free passage to the Holy Land for every Chris- 
tian pilgrim. Wrecked in his voyage homeward, and trav- 
elling in disguise through Germany, Richard was seized, and 
detained in prison, by command of the Emperor Henry VL 
The King of France ungenerously opposed his release, as 
did his unnatural brother John, from selfish ambition ; but 
he was at length ransomed by his subjects for the sum of 
150,000 mcrks, and after an absence o^ nine ye:^rs, returned 
to his dominions. His traitorous brother was pardoned af- 
ter some submission ; and Richard employed the short resi- 
due of his reign in u spirited revenge against his rival, Philip. 
A truce, however, was concluded, by the mediation of 
Rome ; and Richard was soon after killcil, while storming the 
castle of one of his rebellious vassals in the Limosin. He 
died in the tenth year of his reign, and forty-second of his 
age, 1199. 

9. John (Lackland) succeeded to the throne on the death 
of his brother, but found a competitor in his nephew Arthur, 
the son of GeoflVey, supported by Philip of France. War 
was, of course, renewed with that country ; but Arthur, with 
fatal confidence, throwing himself into the hands of his uncle, 
was removed by poison or the sword ; a deed which, joined 
to the known tyranny of his character, rendered John the de- 
'ostation of his subjects. He was stripped by Philip o{ hi« 

17 



186 MODERN HISTORV. PART H 

continental dominions, and he made the Pope his enem> by 

an avaricious attack on the tiea.-iures of tlie rhuich. Ai\er 
:m incfl'ectual menace of" vengeance, Innocent 111. pronounc- 
ed a sentence of interdict ajjainst the kingdom, which put a 
stop to all the ordinances of religion, to baptism, and the bu- 
rial of the dead. He next excommunicated John, and al>- 
solved his subjects from their allegiance ; and he linally de- 
posed him, and made a gift of the kingdom to Philij). .'ohn„ . 
intimidated into submission, declared hiniself the Pope's vas- 
sal, swore allegiance on his knees to the Papal legate, and 
agreed to hold his kingdom tributary to the H(dy See. O-n 
these conditions, which nisured the universal hatred and con- 
tempt of his people, he made his pe.ice with the church. It 
was natural that his subject-;, thus tramj)led upon and sold, 
should vindicate their rights. The barons of the kingdom 
assembled, and binding themselves by oath to an union of 
measures, they resolutely demanded from the King a ratifi- 
cation of a charter of privileges granted by llenry I. John 
appealed to the Pope, wlio, in su])port of his vassal, prohib- 
ited the confederacy of the barona as rebellious. These 
were only the more resolute in their purpose, and the sword 
was their last re«^otirce. At length John was compelled to 
'vield to their demands, and signed, at Hunymede, TJlh June, 
1215, that solenm charter, which is the foundation and 
bulwark of English liberty, Magna Chiirta. 

10. By this great charter, 1. The freedom of election to 
Deneficrs was secured to the clergy ; 2. The fines to the 
overlord on the succession of vassals were regulated ; 3. No 
nids or subsidies were allowed to be levied from the subjects, 
Tinless in a few special cases, without the consent of the 
wreat council ; 4. 'Ihc C rown shall not seize the lands ol 
a baron for a debt, while he has personal property sufficient 
to discharire it ; o. All tlie privileges granted by the King to 
his Vvtssals shall be communicated by them to their inferior 
rassals ; G. One weight and one measure shall be used 
throughout the kingdom : 7. All men shall pass from and 
return to the realm at their pleasure ; 8. All cities and bor- 
oughs shall preserve their ancient liberties ; 9. The estate of 
every freeman shall be regulated by his will, and, if he die 
intestate, by the law ; 10. The King's court shall be station- 
ary and open to all ; 11. Every freeman shall be fined only 
in p^oportion to his offence, and no fine shall be imposed to 
his utter ruin ; 12. No peasant shall, by a fine, be deprived 
of his instruments of husbandry ; 13 No person shall be tri- 
ed on suspicion alone, but on the evidence of lawful witness- 



^ECT. 16. MODERN HISTORV. 18/ 

es ; 14. No person shall be tried or punished but by the 
judgment of his peers and the law ot' the land. 

11. John granted at the same time the Charta de Foresta, 
wliich abohshed the royal privilege of killing game over all 
ihe kingdom, and restored to their lawful proprietors their 
woods and forests, which they were now allowed to enclose 
and use at their pleasure. As compulsion alone had produ- 
ced these concessions, John was determined to disregard 
them, and a foreign force was brought into the kingdom to 
reduce the barons into submission, These applied for aid 
to France, and Philip sent his son Lewis to England with an 
army ; and such was the people's hatred of their sovereiw-n, 
that they swore allegiance to this foreigner. At this critical 
period John died at Newark, 1216, and an instant change en- 
sued. His son Henry III., a boy of nine years of age, was 
crowned at Bristol, and his uncle the Earl of Pembroke ap- 
pointed protector of the realm ; the disaffected barons re- 
turned to their allegiance, the people hailed their Sovereign, 
:»nd Lewitj with his army, alitor an ineffectual struggle, made 
peace with the protector, and evacuated the kingdom. 



XVI. 

STATE OF (iERMANY ^XD ITALY !N THR THIRTEENTH CEN"- 



TURY 



1. Frederick H., son of Henry VI., was elected Empe- 
ror on the resignation of OthoIV., 1212. At this period Na- 
ples, Sicily, and Lombardy, were all appendages of the em- 
pire ; and tlie contentious between the Imjierial and Papal 
powers divided the states of Italy into factions, known by the 
name of Guelphs and Ghibellines ; the former maintaining 
the supremacy of the Pope, the latter that of the Emperor. 
The opposition of Frederick to four successive Popes was 
avenged by excommunication and deposition ; yet he kept 
possession of his throne, and vindicated his authority with 
great spirit. Frequent attempt^ were made against his life, 
by assassination and poison, which he oi)enly jattribuled to 
Papal resentment. On his death, 1250, the splendour of the 
empire was for many years ob«;cured. It was a prey to in- 
cessant factions and civil war, .the fruit of contested claims of 
sovereignty ; yet the Popes gained notiiir)gby its disorders ; 
for the troubles of Italy were equally hostile to tli€ir ambition^ 
We have seen the turbulent state of England ; France wa« 



I8C MODERN HISTORY. PART II. 

♦equally weak aud anarchical ; Spain ravapetl by Hie contests 
o( the Moors and Christians. Yet, distracted as appears 
the situation of Europe, one great project gave a species of 
union to this discordant mass, of >vhich we now proceed to 
-rivp account. 



XVII, 



THL CRUSADES, OR HOLY \VAlv». 

1. The Turks or Turcon»ans, a race of 'J\»rlar.- Irom ilie 
legions of Mount Tauru? and linaus, invaded the dominions 
of Moscovy in the eleventh century, and came down upon 
the banks of the Caspian. Tlie Caliphs cnjjjloyed Turkish 
mercenaries ; and tliey acijuircd the reputation of able sol- 
diers in the wars that took place on occjision of the contested 
Caliphate. The Calipln of Baijjdat, the Abassida', were de- 
prived, by their rival Cahph> of the race of Omar, of Syria, 
Egypt, and Africa ; and tlie Turks stripped of their domin- 
ions both the Abas<i(la' and Ommiadcs. Bac^dat was taken 
by the Turks, and the empire ol' the Caliphs overthrown, in 
1055 ; and these princes, from temporal monarchs, became 
now the siipr<^nie Bontitls of the Mahom«^tan faith, as the 
Popes of the Christian. At the time of the tirst crusade, in 
the end of the eleventh century, Arabia was governed by a 
Turkish Sultan, as were PiM'sia and the greater portion of 
Lesser Asia. The eastern empire was thus abridged of its 
.\siatic territory, and had lost a great part of its dominioos 
in Europe. It retained, however, Greece, Macedonia, 
Thrace, and lllyria ; and Constantinople itself was populous, 
opulent, and luxurious. Pidcsline was in the po.-session of 
the Turks ; and its capital, Jerusalem, fallen from its ancient 
eonsequcnce and splendour, was yet hold in respect by its 
coixjufMors as a holy city, and constantly attracted the resort 
of Mahometans to the mosque of Omar, as of Christian pil- 
grims to the so])ubhre of our Saviour. 

2. Peter the Mormit, a native of Ami<'n>, on his return 
from this pilgrimage, complained in loud terms of the griev- 
ances whicf^ the Christiins siifl'cred from the Turks ; and 
Urban II. pitched on llii> enthusi;L«t as a tit person to com- 
mence the execution of a grand design which the Popes had 
long entertained, of arming all Christendon), and extermina- 
ting the inlidels from the Holy Land. The project was 
opened in two general councils held at Placentia and Cler- 



S«C'*. 17. MODERV HISTORV. iH\} 

mont. The French possessed more ardour than the Ital- 
ians ; and an immense multitude of ambitious and disorder- 
ly noble.^, with all their dependents, eager tor enterprise and 
plunder, and assured of eternal salvation, iinmediately took 
the cross. Peter the Hermit led 80,000 under his banners, 
and they began their m irch towards the Ra*t in 1095. Tlieir 
progress was marked by rapine and hostility in every Chris- 
tian country through which they passed ; and the army of 
the Hermit, on its arrival at Constantinople was wasted 
down to 20,000. The Emperor Alexius Comnenus, to 
whom the crusaders behaved with the most provoking inso- 
lence and tolly, conducted himself with admir.ible modera- 
tion aod good sense. He hastened to get rid of this disorderly 
multitude, by furnishing them with every aid which they re- 
quireil, and cheertully lent hi< «!ii[)s to transport them across 
the Bosphorus. The Sultan .Solyin m met them on the plain 
of Nicea, and cut to pieces the army of the Hermit. A new 
host, in the moan time, arrived at Constantinople, led by 
more illustrious comtnanders ; by Godfrey of Bouillon Duke 
of Brabant, Raymond Cou"nt of Thoulouse, Robert of Nor- 
mandy, son o/ William King of England, Bohemond, son of 
Robert Guiscard, the conqueror of Sicily, and other princes 
of high reputation. To these, who amounted to some hun- 
dred thousands, Alexius manit'ested the same prudent con- 
duct to accelerate their d(»parture. The Turks, overpow- 
ered by numbers, were twice defeated, and the crusaders, 
pursuing their successes, penetrated at length to Jerusalem, 
which, after a siege of six weeks, they took by storm, and 
with savage t'ury massacred the whole of its Mahometan and 
Jewish inhabitants, A. D. 1009. Godfrey was hailed King of 
Jerusalem, but was obliaied soon after to cede his kingdom 
to the Pope's le-ate. The crusaders tlivided Syria and Pa- 
lestine, ami formed four separate states, which weakened 
their power. The Turks bei;an to recover strength ; and 
the Christian states of Asia ^oon found il nece^arv to solicit 
aid from Europe. 

3. The second crusade set out lV.)m ihi^ West in 1 Ik), to 
the amount of 200,000, French, Gerrn uis, and Italians, led by 
Hugh, brother to Philip I. of France. These met with the 
same fate which atten<le«l the army of Peter the Hermit. 
The garrison of Jerusalem was at this time so weak, that it 
became necessary to embody and arm the. monks for its de- 
fence, and hence arose the military orders of the Knights 
Templars and Hospitallers, and soon after the Teutonic, from 
»he German pilgrims. Meantime Pope Eugenius HI. employ- 

f^il St. Bernard to preach up a new crusade in France, which 

17> 



lyU MODERN' HISTORY. hAUT Tj 

was kcadeil by ils sovereign Louis V'll. (the Young,) who, \u 
conjunction with Conrad III. Kmperor of Germany, muster- 
ed jointly '^00,000 njon. The (lermans were rut to pieces 
by the Sultan of Iromum ; the French were totally defeated 
near Luodicea ; and the two monarchs, after much disaster, 
returned with •^hame to their dominions. 

1. The illustrious Saladin, nephew of the Sultan of Epypt, 
formed the de:<ign of recovering Palestine from the Chris- 
tians ; and besieijinc: .Ieru*alem, he took the rity, and made 
prisoner its 80vereign Guy of Lusii^iau. Pope Clement III. 
alarmed at the successes of the InlideU, began to stir up a 
new crusade from France, Fuiiland, and Germany ; and the 
armies of each country were headed by their respective sove- 
reigns, Philip Auijustus, Kirhard 1. and Frederick Barbaros- 
sa. In this third crusatle, the emperor Fredt-rick died in 
Asia, and hi< aiiny, by repeated defeats, mouldered to no- 
thing. 'J'hr Fn;^di>h and FVench were more successful ; they 
besieged and took Ptolemnis ; but Richard aiul Philip quar- 
relleil from jealousy of each other's glory, and the French 
monarch returned in disgust to hi» country. Kirhanl nobly 
-sustained the contest with Saladm, whom he defeated near 
Ascalon : but his army was reiluced by funine and fitigiie ; 
and roncluduig a treatv, at b'ast not di««honoiirabh', \\\{h his* 
^*nemy, he wils forced at length to escape from Palestine with 
a single shij). (See suy);v/. Sect. XV. § 8.) Saladin, revered 
even by the Christians, died 1 l!*o. 

5. A fourth crusade was fitted oui in 1202, tinder Baldwin 
( onnt of Flanders, of which tiie obj*^ct was not the ^xti^pa- 
tion ot* tlif iruidtls, but the destruction of the empire of the 
Fast. ' lantinople, eml)roiled by civil war and revolu- 
tion, Irom th-puted claims to the sovereignty, wx-* besieged 
and taken b\ tjjc crusaders ; and Baldwin, their chref, was 
elected Kmperor to be within a few months dethroned and 
mnnleretl. The lmj)crial dominion- were shaiod among the 
princij)al leaders ; and the Vcnetian^i, who had lent their 
ships for the expedition, got the isle of Candia (anciently 
Crete) for their rewanl. Alexius, of the Imperial f unily of 
the Connneni, founded a new sovereignty in Asia, which he 
termed the iinpire of Trebizond. The object of a fifth cru- 
sade wag to lay waste Kgypt. in revenge for an attack on 
Palestine by its Sultan Saphadin. Partial success and ulti- 
mate ruin was the issue of this expedition, as of all the pre- 
. eding. 

5. At this period, 1227. a great revolution i<>"l\ jdace in 
\sia. (iengiskan with his Tartars broke doun from the 
Vorth upon Persia and Syria, and massacred indiscriminate- 



SLOT. IT. MODERN HISTORY. 191 

\y Turks, Jews, and Christians, who opposed them. The 
Christian Knights Temphirs, Hospitallers, and Teutonic, 
made a desperate but inetTectual resistance ; and Palestine 
must have been abandoned to these invaders, had not its f.ite 
been for a while retarded by the last crusade under Lcn is 
IX. of France. This prince, summoned, iis he believed, bv 
Heaven, after four years' preparation, sot out for the Holy 
Land, with his Queen, his three brothers, and all the Knights 
of France. His army began their enterprise by an attack on 
Kgypt, where, after serae considerable successes, they were 
at length utterly defeated, and tiie French monarch, with two 
of his brothers, fell into the hands of the enemy. He pur- 
chased his liberty at an immense ransom, and returning to 
France, reigned prosperously and wisely for thirteen years. 
But the same phrenzy ai^ain assailiiiij hini, ho embarked on 
a crusade ag.unst the Moor-; in Afrir.i. whore his army 
was destroyed by a pestilence, and he himself became its 
victim, 1270. It is computed that, in the whole of the cru- 
sades to Palestine, two nnllious of Europeans were burled in 
the East. 

7. Effects of the Crusades. — One ronsoquence of the holy 
wars is supposed to have been the ira])rovemeiit of European 
manners ; but the times immediately succeeding the crusades 
e\hil»it no such actual iinpr<)\ em«'nt. Two centuries of bar- 
bariiim and darkness elapsed between the termination of 
those enterprises and the fall of the Greek empire in 1453, 
the a»ra of the revival of letters, and the commrnrement of 
civilization. A certain consequence of the crusades was the 
change of territorial property in all the feudal kingdoms, the 
sale of the estates of the nobles, and their division among 
a number of smaller proprietors. Hence the feudal aristo- 
cracy was weakened, and the lower classes beg-an to ac- 
cpiire weight, and a spirit of independence. The towns, hith- 
erto bound by a sort of vassalage to the nobles, begiui to pur- 
chase their immunity, acquired the right of electing their 
own magistrates, and were governed by their own municipal 
laws. — The church in some respects gained, and in others 
lost, by those enterprises. Thp Popes gained a more ex- 
tended jurisdiction ; but the f ital issue of those expeditions 
opened the eyes of the world to the selfish and interested 
motives which had prompted them, ami woakene«l the sway 
of superstition. Many of the religious orders acquirt^l an 
increase of wealth ; but this was balanced by the taxes im- 
posed on the clergy. The coin was altorew and debased 
in most of the kingdoms of Europe, from the .scarcity of 
«pecip. The Jews were supposed to have hoarded nnrV 



>92 MODKRN niSTORV. PART II. 

concealetl it, and they became lience the victims of gene- 
ral persecution. The most substantial gainers by the cru- 
sades were the Italian states ot" Genoa, Pisa, and Venice, 
iVom tlie increased trade to the Levant lor the supply oflhoso 
immense armies. Venice, as we have seen, took an active 
concern, and obtained her share of the conquered territory. 
The ai^e of the crusades l)r(ju^iit chivalry to its perfection, 
ind gave rise to romantic fiction. 



Will. 

OF CHIVAI.RV AND ROMANCE. 

1. Chivalry arose naturally from the condition of society 
in those a2;es in which it prevailed. Among the Germanic 
nations, tho protbssion of arms was esteemed the sole em- 
ployment that deserved the name of manly or honourable. 
The initiation of the youth to this profession was attended 
with peculiar solemnity, and appro|uiate ceremonies. The 
I hief of the tribe bestowed the sword and armour on hi« 
vassal, as a syndx)! of their bcinj; devote<l to his service. 
In the progress of the feudal system, these va.ssals, in imi- 
t;ition of their chief, assumed the power of cont'erring ann*? 
on their sub-vassals; with a similar form of mysterious aud 
pompous ceremonial. The candidate for knighthood under- 
went his preparatory fi-^ts and vi>i;il<, ami received on his 
knees the (ucnlladr. ;intl benediction of his chief. Armed 
and caparisoned, he sallied forth in (piest of adventure, which 
whether just or not in its j)urp<)-e, was ever esteemed hon 
ourable in proportion as it was perilous. 

2 The high esteem of the female sex is characteristic of 
ihe Gothic m inner*. In tbo-e ati;es of barbarism, the castles 
of the greater barons were in miniature the courts of Sove- 
reigns. The society of the ladies, who found only in such 
fortresses a security from oiitra2;e, polished the manners; and 
to protect the chastity ami honour of the fiir, was the best 
employ and highest merit of an accomplished knight. Ro- 
mantic exploit bad, therefore, ulways a tincture ef gallantry 

It h!»th been tliron^h all atjes ever seni, 

That with tlie |»r:ti8<- of arms ami chivalry 
Tlie prizp of lieauty still h ilh lOined been. 

Anil that for reasons surcial j>rivity ; 
For either doth on other ninth rely ; 

For he^ u>c seems, most fit the fair to servo, 
I'hat can her best <kfcn<l (r^v^^ villany ; 

Ami she most fit his service doth deserve 
That fairest is, and from her faith will never swcrTC. 

SpENsr.n's Firnr Qi/Tiif 



^ECT. 18. MODERN HISTORY. ] 93 

3. To the passion for adventure and romantic love were 
added very high ideas of morality and rehgion ; but, as the 
latter were ever subordinate to the former, we may presume 
more in favour of their refinement than of their purity. It 
was the pride of a knight to redress wrongs and injuries ; but 
in that honourable employment he made small account of 
those he committed ; and it was easy to expiate the greatest 
offences by a penance or a pilgrimage, which furnished only 
a new opportunity for adventurous exploit. 

4. Chivalry, whether it began with the Moors or Normans, 
attained its perfection at the period of the crusades, which 
presented a noble object of adventure, and a boundless field 
for military glory. Few, it is true, returned from those des- 
perate enterprises, but those few had a high reward in the ad- 
miration of their countrymen. The bards and romancers 
sung their praises, and recorded (heir exploits, with a thou- 
sand circumstances of fabulous embellishment. 

5. The earliest of the o\^ romances (so termed from thp 
Romance language, a mixture of the Frank an<l Latin, in 
which they were written) appeared about the michllc of the 
twelfth century, the period of the second crusado. But those 
more ancient compositions did not record contemporary 
events, whose known truth would iiave prcclu(i«:d ;;11 in)er- 
ty of fiction or exaggeration. Geoflrey of Monmouth, and 
the author who assunuMl the name of Arch-bishop Turpin, 
had free scope to their fmcy, by celel)rating the deeds of 
Arthur and the Knights of the Hound Table, and the ex- 
ploits of Charlemagne and his Twelve Peers ; and from the 
iVuitful stock of those first romances sprung a numerovis off- 
spring, equally wild and extravagant. 

G. Philosophers have analysed the pleasure arising from 
works of fiction, and have endeavoured, l)y various hvpothe- 
ses, to account for the interest we take in the description of 
an event or scene which we know to be utterly imi»ossible. 
We may account thus simply for the pha-nomenon : every 
narration is in some degree attended with a dramatic decep- 
tion. We enter for the time into the situation of tlie person^ 
concerned. Adopting their passions and their feelings, we 
lose for a moment all sense of the absurdity of their cause 
whilst we see the agents themselves hold it for rensonable 
and adequate. The most incredulous sceptic may svmpa- 
thize strongly with the feelings of Hamlet at the si'irbt of his 
father's spectre. 

• 7. Thus powerfully affected as we are by sympathy, even 
against tlie conviction of our reason, how much greater must 
have been the effect of such works of the imagination in 



J94 MODERN IIISTORy. PART 11. 

those days, when popular superstition i^avo lull rretlit to the 
reality, or at least the possibility, of all that they described I 
And hence we must censure, as both unnecessary and impro- 
bable that theory of Dr. Hurd, which accounts for all their 
wildness of the old romances, on the supposition that their 
tictions were entirely allegorical ; which explains the giants 
and savages into the oppressive feudal lords and their bar- 
barous dependants ; as M. Mallet construes the serpents and 
dnigons which guarded the enchanted castles, into their wind- 
ins; walls, fosses, and battlements. It were sulTicient to say 
that many of those old romances are inexplicable by alle 
gory. They were received by the popular belief as truths, 
and even their contrivers believed in the possibility of the 
scenes an«l actions they described. In latter ages, and in the 
wane of superstition, yet while it ^till retained a powerful in- 
fluence, the poets adopted allegory as a vehicle of mora! 
instruction : aud to this period belong those poetical roman- 
ces which bear an allegorical explanation ; as the Fainj 
Queen of Spenser, the Orlando of Ariosto, and the Gierusa- 
h:mma Libcratu of Tasso. 

8. In more modern times the taste for romantic composi- 
tion declined with popidar credulity ; ami llie fistldiousnC'S 
of philosophy atVected to treat all supernatural tiction with 
•'ontempt. \U\t it was at length perceived that this ret'ine- 
nient had cut olV a source of very high mental enjoyment. 
The public taste now took a new turn ; and this moral revo- 
lution is at present tending to its extreme. We are gone 
back to the nursery to listen to tales of hobgoblins ; a change 
which we may safely prognosticate cm be of no long dura- 
hon. 



XIX. 



aTATK OF L¥ROPE I.V THE TFIIRTEENTII AND FOURTEENTll 

CENTURIES. 

1. CovsTANTiKon.E, taken in 1202 by the crusaders, was 
possessed only for a short time by its conquerors. It was 
governed by French Kmperors tor the space of sixty years, 
and was taken by the (i reeks, in 12»)1, under Michael Palap- 
ologus, who, by imprisoning and putting out the eyes of his 
pupil Theodore Lascaris, secured to himself the sovereignty. 

2. (iernr.iny was governed in the beginning of the thir- 
teenth century by Frederick II. who paid homage to th^ 



StSCT. 19. MODERN MISTORV. 195 

Pope for the kingdom of Naples and Sicily, possessed liy his 
son Conrad, and afterwards by his brother Manfred, who 
usurped the crown, in violation of the right of his nephew 
Conradin. Pope Clement IV. jealous of the dominion ol 
the Imperial family, gave the investiture of Naples and Sici- 
ly to Charles of Anjou, brother of Lewis IX. of France, who 
defeated and put to death his competitors. The Sicilians 
revenged this act of usurp.ition and cruelty by the murder, 
in one night, of every Frenchman in the island. This shock- 
ing massacre, termed the Sicilian Vespers, happened oia 
Easter Sunday, 1282. It was followed by every evil that 
comes in the train of civil war and revolution. 

The beginning of the thirteenth century had been sig- 
nalized by a new species of crusade. 1 he Albigenses, inha- 
bitants of Alby in the Pays de Vaud, nt-re bold enough to 
dispute many of tlie tenets of the Catholu; church, as judging 
them contrary to the doctrines of Scrij)iure. Innocent III. 
established a holy commission at Thoulouse, with po^ver to 
try and punish these h(^retics. The Count of Thoulouse 
opposed this persecution, and was, for the punishment of his 
offence, compelled by the Pope to assist in a crusade against 
his own vassals. Simon de Montfort was the leader of this 
pious enterprise, which was marked by the most atrocious 
cruelties. The benefits of the holy comniissi(>n were judg- 
ed by the Popes to be so creat, that it became from that 
time a permanent establishment, known by the name of tlut 
Inquisition. 

4. The rise of the house of Austria may be dated from 
1274, when Rodolphus of Hapsbourg, a Swiss baron, was 
elected Emperor of Germany. He owed his elevation to 
the jealousies of the electoral princes, who could not agree 
in the choice of any one of themselves. The King of Bohe- 
mia, to whom Rodolplius had been steward of the household, 
could ill brook the supremacy of his former dependant ; and 
refusing him the customary homage for his Cermauic posses- 
sions, Rodolphus stripped him of Austria, which has ever 
»:ince remained in the family of its conqueror. 

5. The Italian states of Venice, (ienoa, and Pisa, were at 
this time flourishing and opulent, while most of the kingdoms 
of Europe (if we except England under Edward 1.) were 

I exhausted, feeble, and disorderly. A dawning of civil liber- 
' ty began to appear in France under Philip IV. (/e Bel,) who 
summoned the third estate to the national assemblies, which 
had hitherto consisted of the nobility and clergy, 1:308. It 
was the same prince who established perpetual courts of ju- 
dicature in France, under the name of parhaments. Over 



% 



19G MODERN niSTORV. PAI\l 

these the parliiunent of Paris possessed a junsJictiou by aj) , 
peal ; but it was not till latter limes that it assumed any au- 
thority in matters of state. 

0. Tlie parliament of Kngland had before this aera begun 
to assume its present constitution. The Commons, or the 
representatives of countie^ ami boroughs, were tirst called to 
parlianient by Henry 111. ; before that time, this assembly 
consisted only of the greater barons and clergy. But of the 
rise and proj^ress of the constitution of Kngland we shall af- 
terwards treat more paiticular in a separate >ection. 

7. The spirit of popedom, zealous in the maintenance and 
extension of its preroi^atives, continued much the same iu 
the thirteenth and fourleentli, as we have seen it in the three 
preceding centuries. Pliilip the Fair, had subjected his cler- 
gy to bear their share of the pul)lic taxes, and proliihited all 
contributions to be levied by the Pope in his dominions. 
This doubb' otVence was highly resented by Boniface VIII,, 
w ho expre>sed his indignation by a sentence of excommuni- 
cation and interdict, and a solemn transference ol' the king- 
dom of France to the Kmperor Albert. Philip, in revenge, 
sent his general Nogaret to Rome, w ho threw the Pope into 
prison. The French, however, were overpowered by the 
Papal troops ; and the death of Boniface put an end to lh»' 
quarrel. 

8. It is less easy to justify the condurt of Philip the Fair 
to the Knights Templars than his behaviour to Pope Honi- 
t'lce. The whide ol this order had incurred his resentment, 
from 'Suspicion of harl)ouring treasonable designs. He had 
mtluence with Clement \ . to procure a papal bull, warrant- 
ing their extirpation from all the Christian Kingdoms : and 
this infamous pn)scription was carried into eflect all over 
Furope. The-«e unfortunate men were solemnly tried, not 
tor their real offence, but for pretended impieties antl idola- 
trous practices, and committed to the flames. \'Mi9 — I.H'2. 



XX. 

REVOLUTION OF SWITZERLAND. 

1. The beginning of the fourteenth century wau distin- 
guished by the rcvolulitju of Switzerland, and the rise of the 
Helvetic repubhc. The Emperor Kodolphus of Hapsbourg 
was hereditary Sovereign of several of the Swiss Cantons, 
•nd governed his slates with much equity and moderation ; 



jlit'T. 21. MODER» HIsTORV. 197 

but his successor Albert, a tyrannical prince, lormed the de- 
sign of annexing the whole of the provinces to his dominion. 
and erecting them into a principality for one of hi?! sons. 
The cantons of Schewitz, Ury, and Underwald, which had al- 
ways resisted the authority of Austria, combined to assei' 
their freedom ; and a small army of 400 or 500 men defeat- 
ed an immense host of the Austrians in the pass of Morgatt-. 
1315. The rest of the cantons by degrees joined the asso- 
ciation, and with invincible perseverance, after sixty pitched 
battles with their enemies, they won and secured their dear- 
bought liberty. 

2. Constttution of S-jiitzcrlatuL — The thirteen cantons 
were united by a solemn treaty, which stipulated the propor- 
tional succours to be funiished by each in the case of for- 
eign hostility, and the measures to be followed for securini; 
the union of the states, and accommodating domestic differ- 
ences. With respect to its internal government and econo- 
my, each canton was independent. Of some the constitu- 
tion was monarchical, and of otlier republican. All mat- 
ters touching the general league were transacted either by 
letters sent to Ztirich, and thence otTicially circulated to ;dl 
the cantons, or by conferences. The general diet, where 
two deputies attended from each canton, was held once a- 
year, the first deputy of Zurich presiding. The Catholic 
and Protestant cantons likewise held their separate diets on 
occasional emergencies. 

3. The Swiss, when at peace, employed their troops for 
lure in foreign service, judging it a wise policy to keep alive 
the military spirit of the nation ; an<l the armies thus emplo}'- 
ed have been equally distinguished for their courage and 
fidelity. The industry and economy of the Swiss are prover- 
bial ; and their country supports a most abundant pojuilation. 
from the zealous promotion of agriculture and manufactures 



XXI. 

ATE OF EUROPE (cONTINUEd) IN THE THimEEffTH, FOUR 
TEEKTH, A.ND PART OF THE FIFTKENTH CENTURIES. 

1. The rival claims of superiority between the Popes 
;md Emperors still continued. Henry VII., the siiccessor 
of Albert, vindicated his right by the sword, triumphantly 
fought his way to Rome, where he was solemnly crowned, 
and imposed a tribute on all the states of Italy. His sudden 



(98 MOrERN HISTORY. PART If. 

dcatli was suspected to be the consequence of Papal resent- 
ment. It was in liis time that the seat of the Popedom was 
tr.msterrcil by Clcmtnt V. iioni Home to Avisrnon, 1309. 
where it remaine(i till 1377. The factions of Italy were the 
cause of this removal. Lewis of Bavaria, the inccesior ol 
Henry, deprived and excomninnicated by John XXll., re- 
\ens<Jd himself by deposing the Pope. This pontifl, who had 
originally been a cobler, surpassed the most of his prede- 
cessors in pride and tyranny. He kept his seat on the P.ipal 
chair, and loft at his death an immense treasure, accumulat- 
ed by the sale of benefices, while his rival the Emperor died 
in indifjence. 

2. His successor in the empire, Charles IV., published 
in 1355, the Imperiid constitution, termed The Golden Bully 
the fundamental law of the Germanic body, which reduced 
the number of Electors to seven, and settled on them ;dl 
the hereditary ollices of sUite. These exemplified their 
»ew rights, bv deposing his son Wenceslaiis for incapacity, 
1400. Three separate factions of the French and Itahnn 
cardinals having elected three separate Popes, the Empe- 
ror Sigismund judged this division of the chtin h to be a fit 
opporlunity tl>r his interference, to reconcile all differences, 
and establish his own supremacy. He summoned a general 
council at Constnnce 1414, and ended the dispute, by de- 
cradin"" all tho three Pontifl's, and naming a fourth, Martin 
Culonna. This division of the Papacy is termed the greu^ 
schism of the west. 

3. The spiritual business of the council of Constance was 
no less important than its temporal. John Huss, a disc iple 
of Wickliff, was tried for heresy, in denying the hierarchy 
and satirising the immoralities of the Popes and bishops. H» 
(lid not deny tho cliargc ; and refuMng to confess his crror>. 
was burnt alive. A similar fate was the portion of his friend 
and di«<iplo, Jerome of Prague, who displayed at his ex( 
rution tbe olo(iUonce of an apostle, and the constancy of .. 
martyr, 1 4 1 G. Sigismund felt the consequence of these hor- 
rible proci'odings ; for tho Pohemians opposed his succession 
to their vacant crown, and it cost bun a uar of sixteen years 
to attain it. 

4. Whatever was the imperial power at tliis time it iU 
nvod but small consequence from its actual revenues. Tli« 
wealth of the Germanic states was exclusively possessed by il 
their separate Sovereigns, and tbe Km]»oror had little more 
than what ho drew from Bohemia and Hungary. The sove- ^ 
reignty of Italy was an empty title. The interest of the 
Kinperor in that country furnished only a source of factionj 



?EOT. 22. MODERN HISTORY. 199 

to its princes, and embroiled the states in perpetual quarrels. 
A series of conspiracies and civil tumults form, for above 
200 years, the annals of the principal cities. Naples and Si- 
cily were ruined by the weak and di-ordcrly government of 
the two Joannas. A passion which the younger of these 
conceived for a soldier of the name of Sforza, raised him to 
the sovereignty of Milan ; and her adoption, tirst of Alphon- 
so of Arragon, and afterwards of Lewis of Anjou, laid the 
foundation of those contests between Spain and France for 
the sovereignty of the two Sicilies, whicli afterwards agitat- 
ed all Kurope. 



XXIl. 

HISTORY' OF ENGLAND IN THIRTEENTH CENTIRV. 

J . Hfnrv III., who. at nine years of age, succeeded to thi, 
rown of England on the death of his i'ather John, was a 
prince of amiable dispositions, but of weak undei-standing. 
Flis preference for foreign favourites disgusted his noldes ; 
and the want of economy in his government, and oppres- 
sive exactions, deprived him of the afl'ection of his people. 
Montfort Earl of Leicester, son of iho leader of the cru- 
sade agjiinstthe Albisrenses, and brother-in-law of the King, 
conceived a plan for usurping the government ; and forming 
a league with the barons, on the pretext of reforming abus- 
es, compelled Henry to delegate all tl»e regal power into the 
hands of twenty-four of their number. These divided among 
themselves the oftices of government, and new-modelled the 
parliament, by summoning a certain number of knights cho- 
fen from each county, a measure fatal to their own power ; 
for these representatives of the people, indignant at Leices- 
ter's usurpation, determined to rest«)re the royal anthority ; 
snd they called on Fri;)ce Edward, a youth of intrepid spi- 
lt, to avenge his father's wrongs, and save the kingdom. 
C. Leicester raised a formidable force, and, in a success- 
ful engagement, at Lewes in Su-irsex, l2iJ4, defeated the ro}- 
al army, and made both the King and Prince his prisoneri. 
^lo now compelled the impotent Jlenry to ratify bis authori- 
ty by « solemn treaty ; and, assuming the character of Re- 
cent, he called a parliament, summoning two knights f'om 
each of the counties, and deputies from the princi}>.il bo- 
roughs, the lir«t regular plan of the Engli>h houso of Com' 



:,UU MODERN HISTORY. PABT LI,. 

nions. This assembly, exercisipg its just nights, and assert- 
ing with firmness the re-estabUshment of the ancient govern- 
ment of the kingdom, Leicester judged it prudent to release 
the Prince from his conrtnement ; and Edward was no soon- 
er at hberty, than lie took the field against tlie usurper, who, 
in the battle of Kvesham, 4th August 12G3, w;is defeated 
and slain. Henry whs now restored to his tlirone by the 
arms of his gallant son, who, after establishing domestic tran- 
ijuillity, embarked in the last crusade with Lewis IX., and 
signalized his prowess by many valourous exploits in Pales- 
tine. He had the honour of concluding an advantiigeous 
truce for ten years witli the Sultan of Babylon, and was on 
his return to England when he received intelligence of his 
accession to the crown by the death of his father, 1272. 

3. Edward I., in the beginning of his reign, projected the 
conquest of Wales. The Welsh, the descendants of the an- 
j'ient Britons who had escaped tlie Komaii and Saxon con- 
quests, preserved tluir liberty, their laws, their manners, and 
their language. Their Prince, Lewellyn, refusing his cus- 
tomary homage, Edward invaded Wales, and surrounding 
the army of the Prince who retreated to the mountains, cut 
off all his supplies, and compelled him to an unqualified sub- 
mission. The terms demanded were, the surrender of a part 
of the country, a large sum of money, and an obligation of 
perpetual fealty to the crown of England. The Welsh in- 
tVinged this treaty ; and Edward marrhed his army into the 
heart of the country, where the troops of Lewellyn made a 
most desperate but inelVectual resistance. In a decisive en- 
gagement, in 1283, the Prince was slain. His brother Da- 
vid, betrayed into the hand of the conqueror, was inhumanly 
oxecu^pd on a gibbet ; and Wales, completely subdued, was 
annexed to the crown of England. With a policy equally 
absurd and cruel, PMward ordered the Welsh bards to be 
put to death wherever found ; thereby insuring the perpetu- 
ation of their heroic songs, and increasing the abhorrence of 
the vanquished people for their barbarous conqueror. 

4. The conquest of Wales inflamed the and>ition of Ed- 
ward, and inspired him with the design of extending his do- 
minion to the extremity of the island. The design-* of this 
enterprising monarch on tiie kingdom of Scotland invite oiii 
attention to that quarter ; but previously require a short re- 
Respect to its earlier history. 

m 



SECT. 23. MOBERN HISTOEY. 201 

XXIII. 

HISTORV GF SCOTLAND FROM THE ELEVENTH TO THE FOUR- 
TEENTH CENTURY. 

1. The history of Scotland, before the reign of Malcolm 
III., surnamed Canmore, is obscure, from the deticiency oi 
historical records. This priuce, by the defeat of xMacbeth, 
the murderer of his father Duncan, succeeded to the thron» 
in 1057 ; and espousing the cause of Edsi;ar Athehnjf, heir 
of the Saxon kings of England, whose sister he mnrncd, he 
thus provoked a war with Wilham the Conqueror, which 
wi\s equally prejudicial to both kint.nU>ms. In an expedition 
of xMalcolm into Engbmd, it is alloL;ed that, after concluding 
a truce, he was compelled by William to do homage for his 
kingdom. The truth is, that this homaije was done for the 
territories in Cumberland and NorthumberlancV won by the 
Scots, and held in vassalage of the English crown, though 
this homage was afterwards absurdly made the pretext of a 
claim of feudal sovereignty over all Scotland. In a reign of 
twenty-seven years, Malcolm supported a spirited contest 
with England both under William 1., and his son Rufus ; and 
to the virtues of his queen Margaret his kingdom, m its do- 
mestic policy, owed a degree of civilization remarkable ija 
those ages of barbarism. 

2. Alexander I., his son and succes-or, defended, with 
equal spirit and good policy, the independence ol his king- 
dom ; and his son David I., celebrated even by the demo- 
cratic Buchanan, as an honour to his country and to mon- 
archy, won from Stephen, and annexed to his crown, the 
whole earldom of Northumberlimd. In those reigns we hear 
of no claim of the feudal subjection of J^cotland to the crown 
of England ; though the accidental fortr.ae of war afterwards 
furnished a ground for it. William I. (the Lyon,) taken pri- 
soner at Alnwick by Henry II., was comp' Hod, as the price 
of his release, to do homage for his,whole kingdom ; an ol)- 
ligation which his successor Kir hard voluntarily discharged, 
as deeming it to have been unjustly extorted. 

3. On the death of Alexander ill. without m;dc issue, in 
1285, Bruce and Baliol, descendants of David I., by the fe- 
male Hne, were competitors for the crown, and the preten- 
tions of each were supported by a fornaidable party in the 
kingdom. Edward I. of England, chosen umpire of the ron» 
test, arrogated to himself, in that character, the feudal sove- 
reignty of the kingdom, compelling ail the barons to swear 

• alleKianre to hipi, and taking actual possession of tke coui- 
JL 18* 



.02 :>I0DERN HISTORV. PART 11, 

try by his troops. He then adjudged the crown to Bahol, on 
the express condition of his swearing fealty to him as lord 
pariAmount. Baliol, however, soon after renouncing his al- 
legiance, the indignant Edward invaded Scotland with an im- 
mense force, and compelled the weak prince to abdicate the 
throne, and resign the kingdom into his hands. 

4. William Wallace, one of the greatest heroes whom his- 
tory records, restored the fallen honours of his country. — 
Joined by a few patriots, his tirst successes in attacking the 
English garrisous brought numbers to his patriotic standard. 
Their successes were signal and conspicuous ; victory fol- 
lowed upon victory ; and while Edward was engaged on the 
continent, hi«i troops were utterly defeated in a desperafe cn- 
gaj^ement at Stirling, and forced to evacuate the kingdom. 
Wallace, the deliverer of his country, now assumed the title 
of Governor of Scotland under Baliol, who was Edward's 
prisoner ; a distinction which was followed by the envy and 
disaffection of many of the nobles, and the consequent dimi- 
nution of his army. The Scots were defeated at Falkirk. 
Edward returned with a vast accession of force ; and after a 
fj uitless resistance, the Scottish barons fmally obtained peace 
by a capitulation, from which the brave Wallace was except- 
ed by name. A fugitive for some time, he was betrayed in- 
to the hands of Edward, who put him to death with every 
cir.umstance of cruelty that barbarous revenge could dic- 
tate, 1304. 

5. Scotland found a second champion and deliverer in 
Robert Bruce, the grandson of the competitor with Baliol ; 
wlio, deeply resenting the humiliation of his country, once 
more set up the standard of war, and gave defiance to the 
English monarch, to whom his father and grandfather had 
mn;inly swore allegiance. Under this intrepid leader the 
spirit of the nation was roused at once : the English were at- 
tacked in every (piarter, and once more entirely driven out 
gf the kingdom. Robert Bruce was crowned King at Scone, 
130G ; and Edward, advancing with an immense army, died 
at Carlisle, 7th July, 1307, enjoining it with his last breath 
to his son Edward 11. to prosecute the war with the Scots to 
fhe entire reduction of the country. 



XXIV. ^ 

HISTORY OF ENSLAND IX THE FOURTEENTH CENTURY. 

1. In the reign of Edward I. we observe the conatitutioji 
"•f England gradually xidvancing. The commons had been 



SaCT. 24. MOREEN HISTORY. OQ.3 

admitted to Parliament in the latter period of his father Hen- 
ry III. A statute was passed by Edward, which declared, 
that no tax nor impost should be levied without the consent 
of Lords and Commons. The same monarch ratified the 
Magna Cliarta no less than eleven times in the course of his 
reign ; and henceforward this fundamental law began to be 
regarded as sacred and unalterable. 

2. Edward fl, vyps in character the very opposite of hig 
father, weak, indolent, and capricious, but of humane and be- 
nevolent afl'ections. He disgusted his nobles by his attach- 
ment to mean and undeserving favourites, whom he raised 
to the highest dignities of the state, and honoured with his 
exclusive contidence. Piers Gaveston, a vicious and trifling 
minion, whom the King appointed Regent when on a jour- 
ney to Paris to marry Isabella, dau^hier of Philip the Fair, 
disgusted the barons to such a pitch, that they compelled 
the King to delegate all the authority of government to cer- 
tain commissioners, and to abandon his favourite to their re- 
sentment. He was doomed to perpetual imprisonment, and, 
on altertipt to escape, was seized and beheaded. 

3. Edward, in obedience to his father's will, invaded Scot- 
land with 100,000 men. King Robert Bruce met this im- 
mense force with 30,000 at Bannockbum, and defeated 
them with prodigious slaughter. This important victory se- 
cured the independency of Scotland. Edward escaped by 
sea to his own dominions ; and a new favourite, Spencer, 
supplying the place of Gaveston, his undeserved elevation 
and overbearing character completed the disaffection of the 
nobles to their sovereign. The Q,ueen, a vicious adulteress, 
joined the malcontents, and passing over to France, obtained 
from her brother Charles IV. an army to invade England, 
and dethrone her husband. Her enterprise was successful. 
Spencer and his father were betrayed into the hands of their 
enemies, and perished on a scaffold. The King was taken 
prisoner, tried by Parliament, and solemnly deposed ; and 
being confined to prison, was soon after put to death with 
unex.mipled circumstances of cruelty, 1327. 

4. Edward HI./ crowned at fourteen years of age, could 
not submit to the regency of a mother stained with the foul- 
est of crimes. His father's death was revenged by the })er- 

*petual imprisonment of Isabella, and the public execution of 
her paramour Mortimer. Bent on the conquest of Scotland 
Edward marched to the North with a prodigious army, van- 
quished the^Scots in the battle of Hallidounhill, and placed 
Edward Baliol, his vassal and tributary, on the throne. T>\\\ 
th.-^ kingdom was as repugnant as ever to the rule of England, 



;04 MODERS HISTORY. PART If. 

tiid :i tavouniblc oppoiiunity was taken for the renewal of 
liostilities, on ilie doparture of Edward for a foreign enter- 
prise, which 2;.i'. e full scope to his ambition. 

5. On the death of Charles IV. without male-is?ue, the 
crown of F' ranee was claimed by Edward III. of England, in 
right of his mother, the sister of Cliarles, while, in the mean 
I'ine, the thi(»in' was occupied by the male heir, Philip of 
V alois. Edward fitted out an immense armament by sea and 
land ; and obtaiiiiniz; a sii»;nal victory over the French tleet, 
landed on the coast of Normandy, and, with his son, the 
Black Prince, ran a career of the most glorious exploits. — 
Philip, with 100,000 men, met the Eni^lish with 30,000, and 
was entirely defeated in the field of Creasy, August islGth, 
1340. Here the English are said for the first time to have 
u«ed artillery in battle. Fire arms are thus but a recent in- 
vention (1340,) and have much contributeil to lessen both 
the slaughter and the frecjuency of wars. Mr. Hume ob- 
serves, that war is now reduced nearly to a matter of calcu- 
lation. A nation knows its power ; and, when over-matched, 
either yields to its enemies, or secures itself by alliance. 
But late events have given some contradiction to those opin- 
ions. Calais, taken by the English, rem dned in their posbes 
*i(in for 210 years. 

G. yhe Scots, in the mean time, invading England, wert 
defeated in the batth' of Durham, by Phili'ppa, the heroic 
C^ueen of Edward III., and tl eir sovereign David 11. UmI 
prisoner to London. A truce concluded between Edward 
vnd Philip was dissidved by the death of the btlter, ami the 
succe^>ion of \n> son lohn, who look the field with <!0,00C» 
men against the Pdack Prince, and was defeated by him w ith 
a ftr inferior nu/nber in the si^^nal battle oi' Poictiers. Sej)- 
teinber 1*\ KK')*). .lohu King of Fi^mce wm-; led in triumph 
to London, the fellow prisoner of David, King of Scotland. 
Bui England derived from these victories nothing but hon- 
our. The French ronrinucd the war with great vigour du- 
ring the captivity of their sovereign, who died in London 
13()4 ; and they obt.»ined p pf-tce ''V the cession to the Eng- 
lish of Poictou, St. Onge, PerigorJ, i:.c., while Edward cun- 
>enied to renounce his cl.dm to the crown of France. The 
dcitli of the Black Prince, a mos: heroic and wrtuous char- 
acter, plunged I'fie nation in L':ricf, and broke the spirits of his 
father, who did not long survive him, 

7. Ri< h ird 11. succeeded his giandfiither, 1377, at the age 
of eleven. Charb:s Vf. soon ajftrr becimie Kiu^ of i-'r-inrell 
at the age of tweWe, and both kingdoms sulT«ifa from the ' 
-distractions attending a regal minority. ! 



..^fiCT. 25. MODERN HISTORY. 205 

tests for power between the King's uncles, Lancaster, York, 
and Gloucester, embroiled all public measures, and the con- 
sequent disorders required a stronger hand to compose them 
than that of the weak and facile Richard. Taking advan- 
tage of the King's absence, then engaged in quelling an in- 
surrection in Ireland, Henry of Lancaster rose in open re- 
bellion, and compelled Richard, at his return, to resign the 
crown. The parliament confirmed his deposition, and he 
was soon after privately assassinated. Thus began the con- 
tentions between the houses of York and Lancaster, 



XXV. 

N'GLAND AND FRANCE IN THE FIFTEENTH CEWTURY.— - 
STATE OF MANNERS. 

1. Henry IV. ascended the throne on the deposition ol 
Richard II., 1399, and had imme(hately to combat a rebellion 
raised by the Earl of Northumberland, for placiu;r IMortimer, 
the heir of the house of York, on the throne. The Scotch 
and Welsh took part with the rebcl>J, but their united forces 
were defeated at Shrewsljury, and their leader, young Percy 
(Hotspur,) killed on the field. A second rebellion, headed 
by the archbishop of York, was quelled by the capital pun- 
ishment of its author. The secular arm was rigorously ex- 
tended against the Ibllowers of Wicklill', and this reign saw 
the first detestable examples of religious persecution. The 
life of Henry was embittered by the youthful disorders of 
his son the Prince of Wales, who afterwards nobly redeem- 
ed his character. Henry IV. died 1413, at the age of forty- 
"ix. 

2. Henry V. took advantage of the disorders of Fnuice, 
irom the temporary insanity of its sovereign Charles Vl. 
and the factious struggles for power between the dukes of 
Burgundy and Orleans, to invade the kingdom with a large 
army, which a contagious distemper wasted down to a fifth 
of its number ; yet with this han<lful of resolute and hardy 
troo])S he defeated the French army of tiO.OOO, under the 
Constable D'Albert, in the fimous battle of Agincouit, in 
which 10.000 of the enemy were slain, and 1 '1.000 made pri- 

♦ soners, October 24, 1415. Returninsr to England to recruit 

IHMs force*, he landed again with an army of 'JfvOOO.and fought 

hh ". ■• *') Par^. The insane monarch, with his court, tied 

;';vi Henry pursuing, terminated the war by a treaty 



2Q6 MODERN HISTORY. PART II. 

with the Queen-mother and the Duke of Burgundy, by which 
il was agreed that he i^hould marry the daui^hter of Charles 
VI. and receive ttie kingdom ol" France as her dowry, which, 
till the death of her father, he should govern as regent. 

3. Mean time the return of Henry to En*:;hind g;ive the 
Dauphin hopes of the recovery of his kingdom. He was 
victorious in an engagement with the English under the Duke 
uf Clarence : but iiis success was of no longer duration than 
the absence of the En2:li?»h Sovereign, who wis himself has- 
tening to the period of his triumphs. Seized with a mortal 
distemper, Henry died in the 34th year of his age, 1422, one 
of the most heroic princes that ever swayed tlie sceptre of 
England. His brother, the Duke of Hedl'ord, was ileclared 
Regent of France, and Henry VI., an infant nine months old, 
waa prorlumetl King at Paris and at London, 1422. 

4. Charles \ II. recovered France by slow degrees. With 
lie aid of a young female enthusiast, the Maid of Orleans, 

whom the credulity of the age supposed to be inspired l»y 
ileaven, he g-,uned several important ailvanlages over the 
Kn^lisb, which the latter inhumanly revenged, by burning 
this heroiiie as a sorceress. Her death w;is of equal advan- 
tage to the French ns her life had been. The government 
of the English w;ts universally detested : it was a struggle of 
mmy years ; but at length, in 1450, they were deprived of 
all they had ever possessed in France, except Calais ruul 
Guignes. Charles, when he had restored his kingilora to 
pea:.e, governeil it with admirable wi-'dom and moderation. 

5. The state of England and of France, the two most po- 
lished kinifdoms in Europe, Airnishes a good criteron of the 

' condition of society »n th<>«Je ages of which we have beea 
treating. Even in the large cities, the houses were roofed 
with thatch, and had no chimnics. Glass windows were ex- 
trrmoly rare, and the floors were covered with straw. In 
England wine was sold otdy in the shops of the apothecaries. 
FapkM' made from linen rag^ was first manufactured in the be- 
ginning of the tifteenth century ; and the use of linen for 
shirts was at that time a very rare piece of luvurv. Vet it 
appears, that even before that age the progress of luxury had 
excited aserious ahirm ; for the parliament under Edward III. 
found it necessary to prohibit the use of gold and silver in 
apparel to all who had not a hundred pounds a-year : and 
Charles VI. of France ordained, that none should presume 
to entertain with more than two dishes and a mess of soup. 
Before the reign of Edward \. the whole rountry of Englan 
was plundered by robbers in great hands, whc^aid waste e 
tire villages ; a«dsomc of the houiehold officers of He; '^ H 






5£CT. 26. MODERN HISTORY. 20'7 

excused themselves for robbing on the highway, because the 
King allowed them no w«\ges. In 1303, the abbot and monks 
of Westminster were indicted for robbing the King'* exche- 
quer, but acquitted. The admirable laws of Edward 1. wliich 
acquired him the title of the English Justinian, give strong- 
testimony of the Hiiserable policy and barbarism of the prr- 
ceding times. 



XXVI. 



► 



DECLINE AND FALL OF THE GUEEK EMI'IRE, 

1. In the fourteenth century the 'I'urks were proceedings 
by degrees to encroach on the frontiers of the Cireek empire. 
The Sultan Ottoman had lixed the seat of his government 
at Byrsa in Bythynia, and his son Orcan extended his sove- 
reignty to the Propontis, and obtained in marriage the daugh- 
ter of the Emperor John Cantacuzenos. About the middle 
of the century, the Turks crossed over into Europe, and 
took Adrianople. The Emperor John Paloeologus, after 
meimly soliciting aid from the Pope, concluded a humiliating 
treaty with Sultan Amurat, and gave his son as a hostage to 
*fTVii in the Turkish army. 

^. Baj;izet, the successor of Amurat^ compelled the Em- 
peror to destroy his fort of Galata, and to admit a Turkish 
judge into the city. He prepared now to besiege Constanti- 
nople in form, when he was forced to change his purpose, 
and defend himself against the victorious Tamerlane. 

3. Timur-bek, or Tamerlane, a prince of the Usbek Tar- 
tars, and descended from Gongiskan, alter the conquest of 
Persia, and a great part of Inflia and Syria, was invited by 
,the Asiatic princes, enemies of Bajazet, to protect them 
against the Ottoman power, which threatened to overwhelm 
them. Tamerlane, flattered by this request, imperiously 
summoned the Turk to renounce his conquests ; a message 
answered with a proud defiance. The armies met near An- 
goria (Ancyra) iu Phrygia, and Bajazet was totally defeated 
and made prisoner by Tamerlane,"* 1402. The conqueror 
made Samarcand the capital of his empire, and there receiv- 
ed the homage of all the princes of tlie East. I lliterate him- 
self, he was solicitous for the cultivation of literature nnd 
science in his dominions ; and Samarcand became for a while 
the seat of learning politeness, and the ajts, hut was destin- 
ed to relapse, after a short period, into its ancient barbarism. 



.*s» 



#.• 



JOS MODERN HISTORY. tAKl i. 

4. The Turk-}, after the death ofTamerl;\ne,re!Juinodtheij 
l)urpose of destroying the empire of the East. Amurat II. 

a prince of a singular character, had, on the faith of a solenia j 
treaty with the King of Fohmd, devoted hi< days to retire- 
ment and study. A violation of the treaty, l»y an attack fron) 
the Poles on his dominions, made himcjuit his solitude. Ih 
engaged and cut to pieces the Poli^lj army, with their perfidi- 
ous Sovereign, and then calmly returned to his retreat, till a 
-imilar crisis of public expediency once more brought him 
into active life. He left his dominion^ to his son Mahomet II.. 
surnamed the Great, who ro>uined the project for the destruc- 
tion of Constantinople ; but its fall was a second time re- 
tarded by tlie necessity in which the Turks were unexpected- 
ly ]>laced, of detendui!j; their (nsii donnuions against a pow- 
erful invader. 

5. Scnnderberg (John C'astnotj I'nnrc of Albania, whose 
territories had been seized by Amurat 11., was educated by 
the Sultan as his own child, and, when of age, intrusted with 
the command of an army, which he employed in wresting 
from Amurat his paternal kingdom, ill. J. By great talents 
and military "^kill, he maintained his independent sovereignty 
against the whole force of the 'l^urki'^h empire. 

f>. Mahomet 11., son of the philost>pluc Amurat, a youth oi 
twenty-one years of age resumed thf }»lan of extinguishing 
the empire of the Greeks, and making Constantinople the 
capital of the Ottoman power. Its indolent inhabitant-^ 
made but a feeble preparation for del'ence, and the j»ower.'^ 
of Europe looked on with the most supine indifference. The 
Tnrks jL-^sailed the city both on t!ie lanrl side and that of the 
.•?ea ; and battering down its wall^ with their cannon, entered 
sword and hand, and massacrejl all who opposed them. The 
Emperor Constantine wa« ."^Jlin ; the city surrendered ; and 
thus was thudly extingui>heTthe eiL«<tern emj»ire of the Ro- 
mans, A. D. 1453, which, from the building of its capital by 
Constantine the Great, had subsiste<l 1 123 years. The Im- 
perial edihces were preserved from destruction, the churclies 
converted into mosques ; but the exercise of their religion 
was all.)wed to all the C'hristians. From that time the Greek 
Chrisiiaus have regularly chosen their own patriarch, whom 
the Sultan instals ; ^jAmigh his authority continues to be dis- 
puted by the Latifi patriarch, who is chosen by the Pope. 
Mahomet tlic Great lib rdly patronised the arts and sciences ; 
and to compensate for the miijration of those learned Greeks. 
who, on the tall of the empire, spread themselves over the 
countries of Europe, invited both artists and men oflettti'^ 
to his capital from other kingdoms. 



i 



:CX. 27. MODERN* HISTORY. tui' 

7. The taking of Constantinople was tollowed by tlie con- 
quest of Greece and Epirus ; and Italy might probably have 
met with a similar fate, but for the fleet of the Venetians, 
who opposed the arms oi" Mahomet with considerable suc- 
cess, and even attacked him in Greece ; but the contending 
powers soon after put an end to hostilities by a treaty. Ma- 
homet the Great died at the age of tifty-one, 1481- 



XXVIl. 

■^OVERNMEN'T AND POLfCY OF THE TURKISH EMPIRE. 

1. The government of Turkey is an absolute monarchy, 
the whole legislative and executive authority of the state cen- 
tering in the Sultan, whose power is subject to no constitu- 
tional control. It is, however, limited in some degree by 
religious opinion ; the precepts of the Koran inculcating cer- 
tain duties on the Sovereign which it would be held an impi- 
ety to transgress. It is yet more strongly limited by the fear 
of dethronement and assassination. Under these restraints, 
the prince can never venture on an extreme abu^e of power. 

2. The spirit of the people is titted for a subjection border- 
mg on slavery. Concubinage being agreeable to the law of 
Mahomet, the Grand Seignior, the viziers, are born of fe- 
male slaves ; and there is scarce a subject of tiie empire of 
ingenuous blood by both parents. It is a fundamental max- 
im of the Turkish policy, that all the othcers of state should 
be such as the Sultan can entirely command, and at anv time 
destroy, without danger to himself. 

3. The Grand Vizier is usually intrusted with the whole 
lunctions of government, and of course subjected to the sole 
responsibility for all public measures. Subordinate to him 
are six viziers of the bench, who are his council and assess- 
ors in c;ises of law, of which he is supreme judge. The 
power of the Grand Vizier is absolute over all the subjects 
of the empire ; but he cannot put to death a Beglerbeg or a 
Bashaw without the Imperial signature ; nor punish a Janiza- 
ry, unless through the medium of his military commander. 
The Beglerbegs are the governors of several provinces, the 
Bashaws of a single province. All dignities in the Turkish 
empire arc personal, and dependent on the Sovereign's plea- 
sure. 

4. The revenues of the Grand Seignior arise from taxes 
ikpd customs laid on the subject, uqnual tributes paid by the 

I 19 



IMO MODERN HISTORY. . PART II. 

r.irtars, staled gifts from the governors of the province-. 
and, above all, the contiscations of estate?? from the Viy.ier- 
and Bashaws downward?;, to the lowest suhjerts of the em- 
pire. The certain and tixed revenues of the Sovereign are 
small in comparison to those which are arbitrary ; and his 
absolute power enables him to execute great projects at a 
small expense. 



XXMII. 

FRANCE AND ITALY I\ THE END OF THE FIFTEENTH CETn- 

TURY. 

1. Tmerf. was scarcely any vestige now remaining in 
France of the ancient fiMidal government. Tlie only subsist- 
ing fiefs were Burgundy and Brittany. Charles the Bold, 
Duke of Burgundy, who sought to increase his territories by 
the conquest of Switzerland and Lorraine, was defeated by 
the Swiss, and killed in battle ; and as he left no son, Lewis 
XL of France took possession of Burgundy i\s a male rtef, 
1447. The Duke's daughter married Maximilian, son of the 
Emperor Frederic 111., who, by this marriage, acquired the 
sovereignty of the Netherlands. 

2. The acquisition of Burgundy and of Provence, which 
was bequeathed to France by tiie Count de la Marche, in- 
creased very greatly the power of the crown. Lewis XL. 
an odious compoimd of vice, cruelty, and superstition, and a 
(yrant to his people, was yet the author of many wise and 
excellent rrguIalion>? of public policy. The barbarity of the 
public executions in his reign is beyond all belief ; yet the 
wixlom of his laws, the encouragement he gave to commerce, 
(he ^strainls he imposed on the oppressiens of the nobility, 
and cue attention he bestowed in regulating the courts of jus- 
tice, must ever he mentioned to his honour. 

3. The Count do la iMarche, besides the bequest of Pro- 
vence to Lewis XL, left him his empty title of Sovereign of 
the Tw ilies. Lewis was satistiod with the substantial 
gift ; b )n Charles Vlll. was d;i/.zled with the shadow. 
In the mg of his reign he projected the conquest of 
Naples, ii' . embarked in the enterprise with the most im- 
provident precipitancy. 

4. The dismembered state of Italy was favourable to his 
views. The Popedom, during the transference of its seat to 
Avignon, had lost many of its territories. Mantua, Moden 



i 



SECT. 29. MODERN HISTORY. 211 

and Ferrara, had their independent Sovereigns. Piedmont 
belonged to the Duke of Savoy ; Genoa and Milan to the 
family of Sforza. Florence, under the Medici, had attained 
to a very high pitch of splendour. Cosmo, the founder of 
that family, employed a vast fortune acquired by commerce, 
in the improvement of his country, in acts of public munifi- 
cence, and in the cultivation of the sciences and elegant arts. 
His high reputation obtiiined for himself and his posterity the 
chief authority in his native state. Peter de Medici, his great 
grandson, ruled in Florence at the period of the expedition of 
Charles VIII. into Italy. 

5. The Papacy w.is enjoyed at this time by Alexander VI., 
a monster of wickedness. The Pope and tlie Duke of Mi- 
lan, who had invited Charles to this enterprise, immedi- 
ately betrayed him, and joined the interest of the King of 
Naples. Charles, afler besieging the Pope in Rome, and 
forcing him to submission, devoutly kissed his feet. He now- 
marched against Naples, while its timid Prince Alphonso fled 
to Sicily and his son to the Isle of Ischia, after absolving his 
subjects from their allegiance. Cluirles entered Naples in 
triumph, and was hailed Emperor and Augustus : but he lost 
his new kingdom in almost as shdrt a time as ho had gained 
it. A league was Ibrmed against Irance between the Pope, 
the Emperor Maximilian, Ferdinand of Arragon, Isabella of 
Castile, and the Venetians ; and on the return of Charles to 
France, the troops he had left to guard his con(piest were en- 
tirely driven out of Italy. 

G. It has been remarked, th;i( from the decisive effect of 
this confederacy against Charles VIII. the Sovereigns of Eu- 
rope derived an useful lesson of policy, and first adopted the 
idea of preserving a balance of power, by that tacit league, 
which is understood to be always subsisting, for the preven- 
tion of the inordinate aggrandizement ol any particular state. 

7. Charles VIII. died at the age of twenty-eight, 1498 ; 
and, leaving no children, the Duke of OrleanK succeeded to 
the throne of Franco, bv the title of Lewis XII. 



XXIX. 

UliTORV OF SPAIN IN THE FOURTEENTH AM; FlITUrNTlt 

CENTURIES. 

1. We go back a little to the middle of the fourteenth cen- 
fMvy, to trace the history of Spain. Peter of Castile, siir- 



-J J MODERN- HISTORY. PART J 

u;une() the Cruel, (tor no other reason than ihat he employed 
severe means to supj)ort his just rights,) hail to contend 
against a bastard brother, Henry of Transtamarre, who, with 
tlie aid of a French banditti, ridled Malandrins, led by Her- 
trand du Guesclin, strove to dispossess him of his kingdom. 
Peter was aided by Edward the Black Prince, then Sovereign 
ofGuienne, who defeated Tran-^tHmarre, and took l^ertrand 
prisoner ; but, on the return of the Prince to England, Peter 
was attacked by his former enemies, and entirely defeated. 
Unable to restrain his rage in the first interview with Transta- 
marre, the latter put him to death with his own hand, 1368 ; 
and thus this usurper secured for himself and his posterity 
the throne of Castile. 

'2. The we;Utness and debauchery of one of his descend- 
ants, Henry l\ . of Castile, occasioned a revolution in the 
kingdom. The majority of the nation rose in rebellion ; the 
:issembly of the nobles solemnly deposed their King, and, on 
the alleged ground of his daughter Johanna being a bastard, 
compelled him to settle the crown on his sister Isabella. 
They next brought about a marriage between Isabella and 
Ferdinand of Arragon, which \iniled the monarchies of Ar- 
ragon and Castile. After a ruinous civil war, the revolution 
was at length comjdet<'(l by the death of the deposed Sove- 
reign, 1471, a!id the retirement of his daughter Johanna to 
a monastery, 1479. 

3. At the accession of Ferdinand and Isabella to the thrones 
of Arragon and Caistile, Spain was in a state of great disor- 
der, from the lawless depredations of the nobles and their 
vassals. It was the tirst object of tlie new Sovereigns to re- 
press these enornutie?, by subjecting the otlenders to the ut- 
most rigour of law, enforced by the sword. The Holy Bro- 
therhood was instituted for the discovery an<l punishment ol 
crimes ; and the Inijui'^ition. (see supra, Strt. \l\. § 3.) un- 
der the pretext of extirpating heresy and impiety, aflbrde<l 
the most detestable examjdes of sau<:uinary perserntion. 

4. The Moorish kingdom of (iranada, a most splcndnl mo- 
narchy, but at that time weakened by faction, and a prey to 
civil war, olTered a templini; object to the ambition of Ferdi- 
nand and Isabella. Alboaren w;ls at war with his nephew 
Aboaltdeli, who wanted to dethrone him ; nnd Ferdinand aid- 
ed Abo ibdeli, in the view of mining both ; for no sooner wa* 
the latter in possession of the crown by the death of Alboa- 
cen, than Ferdinand invaded his ally with the whole force ol 
Arragon and Ciistile. (iranada was besieged in 1491 ; and. 
after a blorkade of eijrht months, surrendt-red to the victor. 
Aboabdeli, by a mean capitulation, saved his life, and pur^ 



SECT. 30. MODERN HISTORV. iiUi 

chased a retreat for his countrymen to a mountainous part of 
the kingdom, where they were suflercd to enjoy unmolested 
their laws and their religion. Thus ended the dominion of 
the Moors in Spain, which had subsisted for 800 years. 

5. Ferdinand, from that period, took the title of King of 
Spain. In 1492, he expelled all the Jews from his domin- 
ions, on the absurd ground that they kept in their hantk the 
commerce of the kingdom ; and Spain thus lost above 
150,000 of the most industrious of her inhabitants. The ex- 
iles spread themselves over the other kingdoms of Europe, 
and were often the victims of a persecution equally inhuman. 
It would appear that Spain has felt, even to the present times, 
the effects of this folly, in the slow progress of the arts, and 
that deplorable inactirity which is the characteristic of her 
people. Even the discovery of the New World, which hap- 
pened at this very period, and whicii stimulated the spirit of 
enterprise and industry in all the neighhourini; kingdoms, pro- 
duced but a feeble impression on that nation, which might in 
a great degree have monopolised its benefits. Of that great 
discovery we shall afterwards treat in a separate section. 



XXX. 



FRANCE, SPAIN, ANP ITALV, IN THi: F.ND OK THE FIFTFEMJJ 
AND BFCINNINU OF TIIK SIXTFENTH CENTIKV. 

1. Lewis Xil., eagerly bent on vindicating his right to 
Naples, courted the interest of Pope Alexander VI., who pro- 
mised his aid, on the condition that his natural son, Caesar 
Rorgia, should receive from Lewis the duchy of Valentinois, 
with the King of Navarre's sister in marriage. Lewis cross- 
ed the Alps ; and in the space of a few days was master of 
Milan and Genoa. Sforza Dukr of Mihui became hi.*! prison- 
er for life. Afraid of the power of Ferdinand ofSp«iin, Lewis 
joined with him in the conquest of Naples, and agreed to 
divide with him the conquered dominions, the Pope making 
no scruple to sanction the partition. Rut the conq)romise 
was of no duration ; for Alexander VI. and Ferdinand judg- 
ing it a l)etter policy to ghare Italy between themselves, unit- 
ed their interest to strip Lewi!^ of his new territories. The 
Spaniards under Gonsalvo de Cordova, defeated the French 
under the duke de Nemotirs and the Chevalier Bayard ; and 
Lewis irrecoverably lost his share of the kinirdom of N;iples. 

2. History relates with horror the crimes of Pope Alexan- 

19* 



Jll MODERN HlSTOhV. hARl 11 

dor VI. and hi? son CaBsar Borgia ; tlieir murders, robberies- 
proianations, incest)^. They compassed lluir ends in attain- 
ing every object of their ambition, but with the universal 
abhorrence of mankind, arid linally met with an ample retri- 
bution for their rrimes. Tlic l\)pe died by poison, prepared, 
as was alh'ged, by liimself for an enemy ; and Borgia, strip- 
ped of all his possessions by Pope Julius II., and sent prison- 
er to Spain by Gonsalvo de Cordova, perislied in miserable 
obscurity. 

.3. Julius II., the successor of Alexander, projected the for- 
mida)>]e league of Cambray, 1508, with the Emperor, the 
Kings of France and Spain, the Duke of Savoy, and King 
of Hungary, for the destruction of Venice, and dividing her 
territories among the confederates. They accomplislied in 
part their design ; and \'enire was on the verge ol annihila- 
tion when the Pope changed his politics ; and having made 
the Trench subservient to his views of plundering the Vene- 
tians, now formed a new league with tlieni, and the Germans 
and Spaniards, to expel the French from Italy, and appro- 
priate all their concpiests. The Swiss and the Fnglish co- 
operated in this design. Tiie French made a brave resiit- 
ance under their generals Bayard and Gitston de Foix, but 
were finally overpowered. Lewis was compelled to evacu- 
ate Italy : Ferdinand, with the anl of Henry VIII. of Kng- 
land, stripped him of Navarre, and forced him to purchase a 
\ieace. He died in 1515; and, though unfortunate in his 
military enterprises, from the superior abilities of his rivals 
Pope Julius and Ferdinand, was justly esteemed by hie sub- 
iects for the wisdom and equity of his government. 



XXXI. 



• nSTORV OF ENGLAND FROM TH£ MIDDLE OF THE FIFTEENTH 

TO THE BEGINNING OF THE SIXTEENTH CE.NTIRY. CIVIL 

WARS OF YORK AKD LANCASTER. 

1. We have seen France recovered from the English in 
the early part of the reign of Henry VI. by the talents and 
prowess of Cliarles Vll. During the minority of Henry, 
who was a prince of no capacity, England was embroiled hy 
the factious contention for power between his uncles, the 
Duke of Gloucester and the Cardinal of Winchester. The 
latter, to promote his own views of ambition, married Henr\ 
'0 Margaret of Anjou. daughter of Kcgnier the titular Kinii 



btCT. 51. MODERN HISTORY. 2l5 

of Naples, a woman of great mental endowments and singu- 
lar heroism of character, but whose severity in the persecu- 
tion of her enemies ahenated a great part of the nobles from 
their allegiance, and increased the partisans of a rival claim- 
ant of the crown. 

2. This was Richard Duke of York, descended by his mo- 
ther from Lionel second son of Edward HI., and elder bro- 
ther to John of Gaunt, the progenitor of Henry VI. The 
White Rose distinguished the faction of York, as the Red 
that of Lancaster. The party of York gained much strength 
from the incapacity of Henry, who was subject to tits of lu- 
nacy ; and Richard was appointed Lieutenant and Protector 
of the kingdom. The authority ol Henry was now annihi- 
lated ; but Margaret roused her husband, in an interval of 
sanity, to assert his right ; and the nation was divided in 
arms between the rival parties. In the battle of St. Alban's, 
50U0 of the Lancastrians weresiain, and the King was taken 
prisoner by the Duke of York, 22d May, 1434. Yet the 
ParUament, while it confirmed the authority of the Protec- 
tor, maintained its allegiance to the King. 

3. The spirit of the Queen re-animated the royal party ; 
and the Lancastrians gained such advantage, that the Duke 
of York fled to Ireland, while his cause was secretly main- 
tained in England by Guy, Earl of Warwick. In the battle 
of Northam])ton the party of York ag;iin prevailed, and Hen- 
ry once more was brought prisoner to London, while his 
dauntless Queen still nobly exerted herself to retrieve his 
fortunes. York now claimed the crown in open parliament, 
but prevailed only to have his right of succession ascertain- 
ed on Henry's death, to the exclusion of the royal issue. 

4. In the next battle the Duke of York was slain, and his 
party defeated ; but his successor Edward, supported by 
Warwick, avenged this disaster by a signal victory near Tou- 
ton, in Yorkshire, in which 40,000 of the Lancastrians were 
shiin. York was proclaifncd K^ing by the title of Edward 
IV., while iMargaret, with her dethroned husband and infant' 
•on, fled to Flanders. 

o. Edward, who owed his crown to Warwick, was un- 
grateful to his benefactor ; and the imprudence and injustice 
of his conduct forced that nobleman at length to take part 
with the faction of Lancaster. The consequence was, that, 
after some struggles, Edward was deposed, and Henry VI. 
once more restored to the throne by the hand- of Warwick, 
now known by the epithet of The Kivg-makcr. But this 
change was of no duration ; the party of York ultimately 
prevailed ; the Lancastrians were defeated in the battle of 



?1G MODERN HISTORY. PART IF. 

finrnet, and tlie brave Warwick slain in the engagement, 
1 W2. 

6. The intrepiil Margaret, whose spirit was superior to ev- 
ery change of Ibrtiine, prepared to strike a hi^t blow for the 
crown of Engl.uul in the battle of Tewksbury. The event 
was fatal to her hopes : victory declared tor Edward. Mar- 
i£aret was sent prisoner to the Tower of London ; and the 
Prince her son, a youth of hiirh spirit, when brought into the 
presence of his conqueror, having nobly dared to justify his 
tntcrprize to the face of his rival, was barbarously murdered 
by the Dukes of Gloucester and Clarence. Henry VI. was 
soon after privately })utto death in the Tower. The heroic 
Margaret, ransomed by Lewis XI., died in France, 1482. 

7. Edward IV. thus secured on the throne by the death 
of all his competitors, abandoned himself without reserve to 
tlie indulg<'nce of a vicious and tyrannical nature. He put 
to death, on the most frivolous pretence, his brother Cla- 
rence ; and, preparing to gratify his subjects by a war with 
France, he ilied suddenly, in the forty-second year of his 
age, poisoned, as was suspected, by his brother, Richard 
Duke of Gloucester, 1 183. 

8. Edward left two sons, the ehler, Edward V., a boy of 
thirteen years of age. Richard Dike of Gloucester, named 
Protector in the minority of his nej>hew, hired, by means of 
Buckingham, a mob of the dregs of tiie populace to declare 
their wish for his assumption of the crown. He yielded, 
with affected reluctance, to this voice of the nation, and was 
proclaimed King liy the title of Richard 111., 1483. I'.d- 
ward v., (after a reign of two months,) together with his 
brother the Duke of York, were, by command of the usurp- 
er, ^mothered while asleep, and privately buried in the 

Tower. 

0. These atrocious crimes found an avenger in Henry 
Earl of Richmond, the surviving heir of the house of Lancas- 
ter, who, aided by Charles VHI. of France, landed in Eng- 
land, and revivetl the spirit of a party almost exlingiiislied 
in the kingdom. He gave battle to Richard in tlie field of 
liosworth,"' and entirely defeated the army of the usurper, 
who was slain while fightincj witli tlio most despenite cour- 
a"-e, August 22, 1485. The crown he wore in the engage- 
ment was immediately placed on the head of the conqueror. 
This auspicious day put an end to the civil wars of York and 
Lancaster. Henry VII. united the rights of both familieiby 
his marriage with Elizabeth, daughter of Edward IV 

10. The reign of Henry VII. was of twenty-four years' 
duration ; and under bis wise and politic government thr 



•^BCT. 32. >TODERN HISTORY. 21*7 

kingdom recorered all the wounds it had sustained in those 
unhappy contests. Industry, good order, and perfect subor- 
dination were the fruit of the excellent laws passed in this 
reign ; though the temper of the sovereign was despotic, and 
his avarice, in the latter part of his reign, prompted to the 
most oppressive exactions. 

1 1 . The government of Henry was disturbed by two very 
Mugular enterprises ; the attempt of Lambert Sironel, the 
son of a baker, to counterfeit the person of the Earl of War- 
wick, son of the Duke of Clarence ; and the similar attempt 
of Perkin Warbeck, son of a Flemish Jew, to counterfeit the 
Duke of York, who had been smothered in the tower by 
Richard III. Both impostors found considerable support, 
but were finally defeated. Simnel, after being crowned at 
Dublin King of England and Ireland, ended his days in a 
menial office of Henry's household. Perkin, for live years, 
supported his cause by force of arms, and was aided by a 
great proportion of the English nobility. Overpowered at 
length, he surrendered to Henry, who condemned him to 
perpetual imprisonment ; but his ambitious spirit meditat- 
ing a new insurrection, he was put to deatli ;is a traitor. 
Henry VII. died 1509, in the tifty-third year of his age, anrf 
twenty-fourth of his reign. 



XXXII. 

WISTORV OF SCOTLAND FROM THE MIDDLE OF TIIK FOURTEENTH 
CENT¥RV TO THE END OF THE REIUN OF JAMES V. 

1. I.v no country of Europe had the feudal aristocracy at- 
tained to a greater height than in Scotland. Tlie power of 
the greater barons, while it rendered them independent, and 
often the rivals of their Sovereijrn, was a perpetual source of 
turbulence and disorder in the kingdom. It was therefore £^ 

^constant policy of the Scottish kings to humble the nobles, 
and break their factious combinations. Roltert I. attempted 
to retrench the vast territorial possessions of his barons, by 
requiring every landholder to produce the titles of his estate ; 
but was resolutely answered that the sword was their char- 
ter o4 possession. 

2. On the death of Robert, in 1329, and during the minor 
ity of his son David, Edward B.diol, the son of John former 
ly King of Scotland, with the aid of Edward III. of England, 



# 



JIC MODERN HISTORY. PARJ II. 

aiiil <>iipporte<l by many of the factious barons, invaded the 
kingdom, and wjis crowned at Scone, wiiile the young Da- 
vid was conveyed for security to France. The mean de- 
pendence of BaHol on the English monarch deprived him ol 
the afl'cctions of the people. Uobert the Steward of Scot- 
land, Randolph and Douglas, :<upported the Brucian interest, 
and, assiiJted by the French, restored David to his throne ; a 
prince destined to sustain many reverses of fortune ; for, in a 
subsequent invasion of the English territory by the Scot>^. 
David was taken prisoner in the battle of Durham, and con- 
\ eytul to London. He remained for eleven years in captiv- 
itv, and witnessed the similar fate of a brother monarch, 
.'ohn King of France, taken prisoner by the Hlark Prince in 
the battle of Poictiers. David was ransomed by his subjects, 
and restored to his kingdom in 1337 ; and he euded a turbu 
lent reign in 1370-1. The crown piissed at his demise to 
his nephew Robert, the High Steward of Scotland, in virtue 
of a desunution mule by Robert I. with consent of the States. 

.3. The reign of Robert H., which was of twenty years' du- 
ration, w;ls spent in a series of hostilities between the Scots 
ind English, productive of no material consequence to eithoi 
kingdom ; and the weak and indoU-nt disposition of his suc- 
< es«ior, Robert 111,, who fouml himself rneqH.il to the con- 
tost with his factious nobles, prompted him to resign th<' gov- 
ernment to his brother the Dnke of Albany. This aml)itioii> 
man formed the design of usijrping the throne by the mur- 
ilcr of his iiephc'.Vt, the «ons of Kol)ert. The elder Rothsay , 
a prince of high spirit, was imprisoned, on pretence of trea- 
sonable designs, and >tarve«l to death. The younger, James, 
escaped a simil u' file which was intended tor him ; but on 
his passage to France, whither he was sent for safety by his 
father, he was taken by an English ship of war and brought 
prisoner to London. The weak Robert siink under these 
inisforttine-, and die.! 140o, after a reign of tirteen years. 

4. Jame- I., a prince of great natural endowment^, protit- 
rd by a captivity of eighteen yeart at the court of England, 
ip adorning his mind with every valuable accomplishment. 
At his return to his kiiiicilom. which in his absence had been 
weaklv governed l)y the Regent Albany, and sulVered under 
all the disorders of anarchy, he bent his whole attention t 
the improvement and civilization of his people, by the enact- 
ment of m my excellent laws, enforced with a resolute au- 4 
ihority. The factions of the nobles, their dangerous cqpjbi- 
natioiis. and their domineering tyranny over their depend- 
ents, the great sources of the people's miseries, were firmly 
restrained, and most severely punithed. But the^n whole 



SECT. 32. MODERN HISTORV. 219 

some innovations, while they procured to James the aflec- 
tions of the nation at large, excited the odium of the nobility 
and gave birth to a conspiracy, headed by the Earl of Atliole, 
the King's uncle, which terminated in th^ murder of this ex- 
cellent prince, in the 44th year of his age, A. D. 1437. 

5. His son James II. inherited a considerable portion of 
the talents of his father ; and, in the like purpose of restrain- 
ing the inordinate power of his nobles, pursued the same 
maxims of government, which an impetuous temper prompt- 
ed him, in some instances, to carry to the most blameable 
excess. The Earl of Douglas, trusting to a powerful vassal- 
age, had assumed an authority above the laws, and a state 
and splendour rival to those of his Sovereign. He was seiz- 
ed, and, without accusation or trial, beheaded. His success- 
or imprudently running the same career, and boldly justify- 
ing, in a conference, his rebellious practices, was put to 
death by the King's own hand. Thus were the factions of 
the nobles quelled by a barbarous rigour of authority. To 
his people James was beneficent and humane, and his laws 
contributed materially to their civilization and prosperity. 
He was killed in the 30th year of his age, by the bursting of 
a cannon, in besieging the castle of Roxbur2;h, A. D. 1460. 

G. His son, James III., without the talents of his predeces- 
sors, affected to tread in the sirnie steps. To humble his no- 
bles, he bestowed his confidence on mean tiivourites ; an in- 
sult which the former avenged by rebellion. His brothers 
Albany and Mar, aided by Edwani IV . of England, attempt- 
ed a revolution in the kingdom, which was frustrated only by 
the death of Edward. In a second rebellion, the confederate 
nobles forced the Prince of Rothsay, eldest son of James, to 
appear in arms against his father. In an engagement near 
Bannockburn the rebels were successful, and the King was 
slain, in the 35th year of his age, 1488. 

7. James IV., a great and most accomplished prince,, 
whose talents were equalled by his virtues, while his meas- 
ures of government were dictated by a true spirit of patriot- 
ism, won by a well-placed confidence the affections of his no- 
bility. In his marriage with Margaret, the daughter of Henry 
VII. of England, both Sovereigns wisely sought a bond of 
amity between the kingdoms ; but this purpose wa? frustrated 
m the succeeding reign of Henry VIII. The high spirit of 
the rival monarchs was easily inflamed by trifling causes of 
offence ; and France, then at war with England, courted the 
aid of heV ancient ally. James invaded England with a 
powerful army, which he wished.to lead to immediate action ; 
but the prudent delays of Surrey, the English general, wast- 



220 MODEIIN HISTORV. PARi 

C(l and weakened his force ; ami in the fatal battle of FIoU 
den the Scots were defeated with prodicjious slaughter. The 
gallant James perished in the tight, and with him almost the 
whole of the Scottish nobles, A. D. 1613. 

8. I'nder the loiig minority of his son James V\, an infant 
at the time of his father's death, the kingdom was feebly rul- 
ed by his uncle Albany. The aristocracy heg-an to resume 
its ancient spirit of independence, which was ill brooked by a 
prince of a proud and uncontrollable mind, who felt the 
keenest jealousy of a high prerogative. With a systematic 
policy, he employed the rluirch to abase the nobility, cou- 
ferriug all the othces of state on able ecclesiastics. The car- 
dinal Beaton co-operated with great .real in the designs of 
his master, and under liim ruleil the kingdom. 

9. Henry VIII., embroiled with the Papacy, sought an alii-" 
ance with the King of Scots, but the ecclesiastical counsel- 
lors of the latter defeated this bei»eficial purpose. A war was 
thus provoked, and James wa* reluctantly compelled to 
court those nobles whom it had been hitherto hi«« darling ob- 
ject to humiliate. They now determined on a disgraceful 
revenge. In ;ui attack on the Scottish border the English 
were repellnl, and an opportunity offered to the Scots of 
cutting otV their retreat. Tlie King gave his orders to that 
end, but his barons obstinately refused to advance beyond 
the frontier. One meiL<;ure more was wanting Xo drive their 
Sovereign to despair. In a subset|uent eng-.igement with the 
English, 10,000 of the Scots deliberately surrendered them- 
selves prisoners to 600 of the enemy. The high spirit of 
James sunk under his contending piu^sions ; and he died of a 
broken heart, in the 3:3d year of his age, a few days after the 
birth of a daughter, yet more unfortunate than her fathei 
Mary (tiucen of Scots, A. D. 1612. 



XXXIll. 

ON THE ANCIENT CONSTITUTION OF THE SCOTTISH GGVER.N 

MENT. 

1. We have seen it a constant policy with the Scottish 
kings to abase the power of their ii ' ' md this >frugi;le 
we have observed to have been the - ■ . of mu< h mi-cry 
and bloodshed ; but the policy was necessary, from the dai 
gerous nmbition and lawless tyranny of those aobles, wiio 
frequently aimed at overturning the throne, and exercised the 
severest oppression on all their depeudents. The interest- 



SECT. 33. MODERN HISTORY- JO J 

therefore, of the people, no less .than the security of the 
prince, demanded the repression of this overbearing and de- 
structive power. The aristoclracy was, however, preserved 
no less by its own strength than by the concurroace of cir- 
cumstances, and chiefly by the violent and unhappy fate of 
the Sovereigns. Meantime, although the measures they pur- 
sued were not successful, their consequences were bencticial. 
They restrained, if they did not destroy, the spirit of feudal 
oppression, and gave birth to order, wise laws, and a more 
tranquil administration of government. 

L'. The legislative power, though nominally resident iri the 
Parliament, was virtually in the King, who, by his influence, 
entirely controlled its proceedings. The Parliament consist- 
ed of three estates, the nobles, the dignified clergy, and the 
lesser barons, the representatives of the towns and shires. — 
The disposal of benefices gave the crown the enliro com- 
mand of the churchmen, who ctjualled the nobles in number ; 
and at least a majority of the commons were the depend- 
ents of the Sovereign. A committee, termed the Lords of 
the Articles, prepared every measure that was to come lie- 
fore the parliament, and these, by the mode of their election, 
were in effect nominated by the King. It is to the credit of 
the Scottish Princes, that there are few instances of their 
abusing; an authority so extensive as that which they consli- 
futionjrlly enjoyed. 

.3. The King had anciently the supreme juri-idiction in all 
causes, civil and criminal, which he generally exercised 
through the medium of his privy council ; but in I 125 James 
I. instituted the Court of* Session, consisting of the Chancel- 
lor and certain judges chosen from the three estates. This 
court was new modelled by James V. and its jurisdiction 
limited to civil causes, the cognizance of crimes beiMg com- 
mitted to the Justiciary. The Chancellor was the highest 
oflicer of the crown, and pre^ideut of the parliauie.Tt.'> To 
the Chainberkun belonged the care of the hi:iaiices and the 
public police ; to the Hii^h Steward the cliarge of the King's 
household : the Constable regulated all matters of military 
arrangement ; and the Marshall was the King's heutcnant, 
and master of the horse. 

4. The revenue of the Sovereign consisted of his dotnaiii, 
which was extensive, of the feudal casualtir^ and forfeiture*, 
the profits of the wardships of his vassals, the rents of vacant 
'. benctices, the pecuniary lines for ofJenc2:s, luid the aid.* or 
presents occasionally given by The subject ; .-i rcA^enic at all 
times sufTicient f«r the purposes of governm-ut, and the sup- 
port of the dignity of the crown. 

20 



n 



21'-* MODERN HISTORY. PART 11. 

5. The political principles which regulated the conduct of 
he Scots towards other nation.^- were ohvious and sinriple. 
It had ever been an object of ambition to England to acquire 
the sovereignty of her sister kingdom, who was constantly 
on her guard against this design of her more potent neighbour. 
It was the wisest policy for Scotland to attach herself to 
France, the natural enemy of England ; an alliance recipro- 
cally courted from similar motives. In those days this at- 
tachment was justly esteemed patriotic ; while the Scots, 
who were the partisans of England, were with equal justice 
regarded as traitors to their country. In the period of which 
we now treat, it was a settled policy of the English Sove- 
reigns to have a secret faction in their pay in Scotland, for 
the purpose of dividing and thus enslaving the nation ; and to 
this source all the subsequent disorders of the latter king- 
dom are to be attributed. 



XXXIV. 

^. VIEW OF THE PROGRESS OF LITERATURE AND SCIENCE 

IN EUROrE. 

/ nOM THE REVIVAL OF LETTERS DOWN TO THE END Of 
THE FIFTEENTH CENTURY. 

1 . The first restorers of learning in Europe were the Ara- 
bians, who, in the course of their Asiatic conquests, becom- 
ing ac(puaiitcd with some of tlic ancient Ci rock aulliors, dis- 
covered and justly appreciated the knowledge and improve- 
ment to be derived from them. The Caliphs procured from 
the eastern Enqtcrors copies of tlie ancient manuscripts, and 
had them carefully translated into Arabic : esteeming princi- 
pally those which treated of niathematics, physic^^, and met- 
aphysics. They disscminateil their knowledge in the course 
uf their conquests, and Ibunded schools and colleges in all 
the countries they subdued. 

2. The western kingdoms of Europe became first ac- 
quainted with the learning of tlie ancients through the medi- 
um of those Arabian translations. Charlemagne caused Latin 
translations to be made from the Arabian, and founded, after 
the example of the Caliphs, the universities of Bononia. 
Pavia, Osnaburg, and Paris. Alfred, with a similar spirit, 
and by similar meaiLS, introduced a taste for literature in Eng- 
land J but the subsequent disorders of the kingdom replung- 



SBCT. 34. MODERN HISTORY. . 223 

cd it into barbarism. The Normans, however, brought from 
the continent some tincture of ancient learning, ^vhich was 
kept ahve in the monasteries, where the Monks were merito- 
riously employed in transcribing a few of the ancient authors, 
along with the legendary lives of the saints. 

3. In this dawn of literature in England appeared Henry 
of Huntingdon and Geoffrey of Monmouth, niunes distin- 
guished in the earliest annals of poetry and romance ; Johji 
of Salisbury, a moralist ; William of Malmesbury, annalist of 
the history of England before the reign of Stephen ; Giral- 
dus Cambrensis, known in the tields of history, theology, and 
poetry ; Joseph of Exeter, author of two Latin epic poems 
on the Trojan war, and the war of Antioch, or the crusade, 
which are read with pleasure even in the present day. 

4. But this aera of a good taste in letters was of short du- 
ration. The taste for classical composition and historic in 
formation yielded to the barbarous subtleties of scholastic di- 
vinity taught by Lombard and Abelard ; and the abstruse 
doctrines of the Roman Law, which began to engage the 
general attention from the recent discovery of the Pandects 
at Amalphi, 1137. The amusements of the vulgar in those 
periods were metrical and prose romances, unintelligible 
prophecie?, and fables of giants and enchanters. 

5. In the middle of the thirteenth century appeared a dis- 
tinguished genius, Roger Bacon, an English iViar, whose 
comprehensive mind was filled with all the stores of ancient 
learning ; who possessed a discriminating judgment to sepa- 
rate the precious ore from the dross, and a power of inven- 
tion titled to advance in every science wliirh was the obj^t 
of his study. He saw the insutbciency of the school philos- 
ophy, and first recommended the prosecution of knowledge 
by experin^ent and the observation of nature. He made dis- 
coveries of importance in astronomy, in optics, in chemistry 
and medicine, and mechanics. He reformed the kalendar, 
discovered the construction of telescopic glasses, forgotten 
after his time, and revived by Galileo, and has left a plain in- 
timation of his knowledge of the composition of gunpowder. 
Yet this most superior genius believed in the possibility of 
discovering an elixir for the prolongation of life, in the trans- 
mutation of metals into gold, and injudicial astrology. 

6. A general taste prevailed for poetical compo'^ition in 
the twelfth and thirteenth centuries. The Troubadours of 
Provence wrote sonnets, madrigals, and satirical ballads, and 
exc<^lled in extempore dialogues on the subject of love, 
which they treated in a metaphysical and Platonic str.iin,- 
They contended for the prize of poetry at solemn meetmgs« 



224 MODERN HISTORT. PART 17. 

Iicre princes, nobles, and the most illustrious ladies, attend- 
J to decide iKtween the rival bards ; and gome of thos»^ 
, rinccs, as HichanJ I. of Kngland, Frederick I. Emperor ot* 
Germany, arc celebrated themselves as troubtidonrs of emi- 
nence. M.mv frajrnionts yet remain of their ( onipositions, 

7. The trantferchv • of the Papal serit to Avit-non in the 
j'ourtet nth century familiarized the Italian poets with the 
sontc^ of the lroubadour>>, and ga\ p a tincture of ihe Provencnl 
style to their compositions, which is very observable m tiie 
poetry of Petrarch and of Dante. The f)h'ina Conftdia of 
Ddiite Ihst introduced the machinery of angels and devils in 
I lie room ufthe Pagan my tholoiiy, and is a work containing ma- 
ny example?* of the terril)le sublime. The Souncts an»l CVin- 
zo7ii of l*etrarch arc highly tender and pathetic, though vitiat- 
ed with a (piaintness and conceit, which is a prevalent fea- 
ture of the Italian poetry. The Decanxtrone of Poccacio, a 

ork of the smnc age, is a masterpiece for invention, ingcn- 
,ou« i;arrative, and acHjuainlance with human nature. These 
nulhorr* have lixt-d the standard of the Italian language. 

8. Contemporary with them, an<l of rival merit, was the 
unglisb Chaucer, who displays all the talents of Boccario 
through the raedium of excellent poetry. The works of 
Uhaucer discover an extensive knowledge of the sciences, 
wn arfjuaintance both with nnrient and modern learning, par- 
ticularly the literature of France and Italy, and, above all, a 

./host acute discernment of life and manners. 

9. Of similar character are the poi m« of Gowrr. but of a 
i.iver cast, and a more chastened inur.dity. Rcpial to these 
-unent men, in every species of hterary merit, was the ac- 
complished James I. of Scotland, of which hi-* remaining 
iv.v;r..< lioar convincing testimony. The doubtful KowlfJ 

1 is said to have adorned the fifteenth century. 

10. bpain di this period b^gan to emerge from iijnorancc 
«nd barbari.-m, and to produce a few of tho>e works wLich 
are enumerated with approbation in the whimsical but judi- 
cious critici'.m of Cervantes. (D. Qtiixote, B. 1. c. C.) 

11. But although poetry attained in those ages a consider- 
able degree of splendour, there was but little advancement 
in general literature and science. History was disgraced by 
the intrrmixture of miracle and f.ible ; thom;h we find much 
curious information in the writings of Matthew of Wcstiain- 
ster, of Walsingham, Everard, Duysburg, find the Chronicles 
of Froi^snrt and Monstrrlet. Philip de Commines happily 
describes the rengns of Lewis XI. and Charles J('III. f^f 
France. Vilhini and Platina are Tujuable recorUcn of the 
ulfairs of Italy. 4^ 



SECT. 35. MODERN nrisTORV. f2o 

12. A taste for classical learning in the fifteenth century 
led to the discovery of many of the ancient authors. Pog- 
gio discovered the writings of Quintilian, and several of the 
coDQpositions of Cicero, which stimulated to farther research, 
and tlie recovery of inuiy valuable remains of Greek and Ro- 
man literature. But this taste was not generally diffused. 
France and England were extremely barbarous. The library 
at Oxford contained only 600 volumes, and there were but 
four classics in the royal library at Paris. But a brighter pe- 
riod was approaching. The dispersion of the Greeks, on the 
fall of the Eastern empire, in the end of the tiftoenlh century, 
diffused a taste for polite literature over all the west of Eu- 
rope. A succession of Popes, endowed with a liberal and en- 
lightened spirit, gave every encouragement to learning and 
the sciences ; and, above all, the noble discovery of the Art 
of Printing contributed to their rapid advancement and dis- 
semination, and gave a certain assurance of the perpetuation 
of every valuable art, and the progressive improvement of 
human knowledge. 

13. The rise of dramatic composition among the moderns 
is to be traced to the absurd and ludicrous representation ii\ 
the churches of the Scripture histories, called in Eogland 
Mysterie*;, Mirac les, and Moralities. These were lirst exhi- 
bited in the twcit'ih century, and continued to the sixteentli, 
when in England they were prohibited by law. Of Uiese wc 
have amusing specimens in Wh irton's history of English poet- 
ry. I'rofane Dramas were substituted in their place ; and a. 
mixture of the sacred and proisme appears to have beeu 
known in France as early as 1300. In Spain the farcical 
mysteries keep their ground to the present day ; nor was it 
till the end of the sixteenth century that any regular compo- 
sition for the stage was known in that country. The Italians 
are allowed by their own writers to have borrowed their 
theatre from the French and English 



XXXV. 

VIEW OF THE PROGRKSd OF fOMMKRCE I.V EUROPE BEFORE 
THE roRTLGUESE DISCOVERIES. 

1. Before giving an account of the diicoveries of the 
Portuguese in the fifteenth century, in exploring a new route 
to India, we shall present a short view of the progreii of 
commerce in Europe down to that period. 

20* 



226 MODERN HISTORY. PART If. 

The boldest naval enterprise of the ancients was the Per- 
iplus of Hanno, who sailed (670 B. C.) from Carthage to the 
coast of Guinea, within four or five degrees of the line. Af- 
rica was not known by the ancients to be almost circumnavi- 
gable. They had a very limited knowledge of the habitable 
earth. They beUeved that both the torrid and frigid zones 
were uninhabitable ; and they were but very imperfectly ac- 
quainted with a great part of Europe, Asia, and Africa. Den- 
mark, Sweden, Prussia, Poland, the greatest part of Russia, 
were unknown to them. In Ptolemy's description of the 
globe, the 63d degree of latitude is the hmit of the earth to 
the North, the equinoctial to the South. 

2. Britain was circumnavigated in the time of Domitian. 
The Romans frequented it for the purposes of commerce ; 
and Tacitus mentions London as a celebrated resort of mer- 
chants. The commerce of the ancients was, however, chiefly 
confined to the Mediterranean. In the flourishing periods of 
the Constantinopohtan empire, the merchandise of India was 
imported from Alexandria ; but, after the conquest of Egypt 
by the Arabians, it was carried up the Indus, and thence by 
land to the Oxus, which then ran into the Caspian sea ; 
thence it was brought up the Wolga, and again carried over 
land to the Don, whence it descended into the Euxine. 

3. After the fall of the Western empire, commerce was 
long at a stand in Europe. — When Attila was ravaging Italy 
the Veneti took ref«ge in the small islands at the northern 
extremity of the Adriatic, and there founded Venice, A. D. 
452, which began very early to equip small fleets, and trade 
to the coasts of Egypt and the Levant, for spices and other 
merchandise of Arabia and India. Genoa, Florence, and 
Pisa, imitated this example, and began to acquire considera- 
ble wealth ; but Venice retained her superiority over these ri- 
val states, and gained considerable territories on the opposite 
coast of Illyricum and Dalmatia. 

4. The maritime cities of Italy profited by the crusades, 
in furnishing the armies with supphes, and bringing home the 
produce of the East. The Italian merchants established 
manufactures similar to those of Constantinople. Rogero 
King of Sicily brought artisans from Athens, and established 
a silk manufacture at Palermo in 1 130, The sugar-cane was 
planted in Sicily in th« twelfth century, and thence carried to 
Madeira, aod finally made its way to the West Indies. 

5. In the twelfth and thirteenth centuries, the Italians were 
the only commercial people of Europe. Venice set the first 
ex imple of a national bank in 1167, which has maintained 
Hs credit to the present times. The only trade of France, 



SECT. 35* MODERN HISTORV. 2^7 

Spain, and Germany, at this time, was carried on at stated 
fairs and m irkets, to which traders resorted from all quarters, 
paying a tax to the Sovereigns or the Lords of the territo- 
ry. The more enterprising bought a privilege of exemption, 
by paying at once a large sum, and were thence called free 
traders. 

6. In the middle ages, the Italian merchants, usually called 
Lombards, were the factors of all the European nations, and 
were enticed, by privileges granted by the Sovereigns, to 
settle in France, Spain, Germany, and England. They were 
not only traders in commodities, but bankers, or money deal- 
ers ; but they found in this last business a severe restraint 
from the Canon law prohibiting the taking of interest ; and 
hence, from the necessary privacy of their bargains, there 
were no bounds to exorbitant usury. The Jews, too, who 
were the chief dealers in money, brought disrepute on the 
trade of banking, and frequently suffered, on that account, 
the most intolerable persecution and confiscation of their for- 
tunes. To guard against these injuries, they invented Bills 
of Exchange. 

7. The Lombard merchants awakened a spirit of com- 
merce, and gave birth to manufactures, which were generally 
encouraged by the Sovereigns in the different kingdoms of 
Europe. Among the chief encouragements was the institu- 
tion of corporations or monopolies, the earliest of which are 
traced up to the eleventh century ; a policy beneficial and 
perhaps necessary where the spirit of industry is low, and 
manufactures are in their infancy, but of hurtful consequence 
where trade and manufactures are flourishing. 

8. Commerce began to spread towards the north of Eu- 
rope about the end of the twelfth century. The sea-ports 
on the Baltic traded with France and Britain, and with the 
Mediterranean by the staple of the Isle of Oleron, n«ar the 
mouth of the Garrone, then possessed by the English. The 
commercial laws of Oleron and Wisbuy (on the Baltic) regu- 
lated for many ages the trade of Europe. To protect their 
trade from piracy, Lubec, Hambuifei, and most of the north- 
ern sea-ports, joined in a confederacy, under certain general 
regulations termed the League cf the Hanse-towns ; an union 
go beneficial in its nature, and so formidable in point of 
strength, as to have its alliance courted by the predominant 
powers of Europe. 

9. For the trade of the Hanse-towns with the southern 
kingdoms, Bruges on the coast of Flanders was found a con- 
venient entrepot, and thither the Mediterranean merchants 
'"brought the commodities of India and the Levant, to ex- 



1 

228 BIODERN HISTORY. PART 11 • 

change with the produce and manufactures of the north. The 
Flemings now began to encourage trade and manufactures, I 
which then spread to the Brabanters ; but their growth be- 
ing checked by the irapohtic Sovereigns of those provinces, 
they found a more favourable tield in Enghmd, wliicli was 
destined thence to derive the great source of its national 
0])ulence. 

10. The Britons had very early seen the importance of 
commerce. Bede relates that London, in b 1 4, was frequent- 
ed by foreigners for the purpose of trade ; and Wiliiam of 
jMidmesbury speaks of it, in 1011, as a most populous and 
wealthy city. The cinque ports, Dover, Hastings, Hythe, 
Komney, and Sandwich, obtained in that age their privileges 
and immunities, on condition of furnishing each tive ships of 
war. These ports are now eigiit in number, and send their 
members to parliament. 

1 1. The woollen manufacture of England w.as considerable 
in the twelfth century. Henry II. incorporated the weavers 
of London, and gave them various privileges. By a l;i".v 
passed in his reign, all cloth made of foreign wool was con 
demned to be burnt. Scotland at this time seems lu have 
possessed a considerable source of wealth, a? is evident from 
the payment of the ransom of William the Lion, which was 
10,000 merks, equal to j[^ 1 00,000 sterling of present money. 
The English found it didicult to raise double that sum for the 
ransom of Richard I., and the Scots contributed a pro|)orlioQ 
of it. The English Sovereigns at first drew a considt ruble 
revenue from the custom on wool exported to beJJianufac- 
lured abroad ; but becoming soon sensible of the benefit of 
encouraging its home manuf (cture, they invited, for that pur- 
pose, the foreign artisans and merchants to reside in England, 
and gave them valual)le immunities. Edward III. was pe- 
culiarly attentive to trade and manuHictures, iis appears by 
the laws passed in his reign, and he was bountiful in the en- 
couragement of foreign artisan?. The succeeding reigns 
were not so favourable ; and during the civil wars of ^ ork 
and Lancaster, the spiriHof trade and manufactures greatly 
declined ; nor was it tW the accession of Henry V'll. that 
they began once more to revive and tlourish. In that inter- 
val, however, of their decay in England, commerce and the 
arts were encouraged in Scotland by .Timies I. and his suc- 
cessors, as much a- the comparatively rude and turbulent 
state of the kingdom would permit. The herring fishery 
then began to be vigorously promoted ; and the duties laid 
on the exportation of woollen cloth show that this manufac- 
ture was thcQ coasiderable among tUe Scots. Glasgow be- 



SECT. 36. MODERN HISTORY. OQ9 

gan, in 1420, to acquire wealth by the fisheries, but had little 
er no foreign trade till after the discovery of America and 
the West Indies. 

12. Henry VII. gave the n^ost liberal encouragement to 
trade and manufactures, particularly the woollen, by invitino- 
foreign artisan?, and establishing them at Leeds, Wakefield, 
Hahfax, &c. The navigation acts were passed in his reign, 
and commercial treaties formed with the continental king- 
doms, for the protection of the merchant-shipping. Such 
was the state of commerce at the time when the Portuguese 
made those great <liscoverie6 which opened a new route t© 
India, and gave a circulation to its wealth over most of the 
nations of Europe. 



XXXVI. 

ISCOVERIES OF THE TORTUGUESE IN THE FIFTEENTH CEN- 
TUay, AND THEIR EFFECTS ON THE COMMERCE OF EUROPE. 

1 . The polarity of the magnet had been known in Europe 
as early as the thirteenth century, but the compass was not 
used in sailing till the middle of the fourteenth ; and another 
century had elapsed from that period, while yet the Europe- 
an mariners scarcely ventured out of the sight of their coasts. 
The eastern ore an was httle otherwise known than by name ; 
and the Atlantic was supposed to be a boundless expanse of 
sea, extending probably to the Eastern shores of Asia. In 
the belief that the torrid zone was uninhabitable, a promon- 
tory on the African coast, in the 29t]i degree of north lati- 
tude, was termed Cape Non, as forming an impassable limit. 

2. In the beginning of the fifteenth century, John, King 
of Portugal, sent a few vessels to explore the African coast ; 
and these doubling Cape Non proceeded to Cape Boyt'der, 
within two degrees of the northern tropic. Prince Henry, 
the son of John, equipped a single ship, which, being (h-iven 
out to sea, landed on the island of Porto Santo. This in- 
voluntary experiment emboldened the mariners to abandon 
tlieir timid mode of coasting, and launch into the open sea. 
In 1420, the Portuguese discovered Madeira, where they es- 
tablished a colony, and planted the Cyprus vine and the su- 
gar-cane. 

3. The spirit of enterprise thus awakened. Prince Henry 
obtained trom Eugene IV. a bull granting to the Portuguese 
ike property of hU the countries they might diecoyer betwcon 



i 



•230 MODERN HISTORY. TART .. 

Cape Non and India. Under John I. ol' Portugal, tlic Cape 
de V'erd Islands were discovered and colonized ; and tlic 
fleets, advancing to the coast of Guinea, brousjlit horae ^old- 
dust, gums, and ivory. Passing the ecpiator, the i^ortuguese 
entered a new hemisphere, and boldly j>rorecded to the ex- 
tremity of the continent. In 1479, a rieel under V'aeco d. 
Gama doubled tlie Cape oi Good Hope, and sailific; onward- 
beyond the mouths of the Arabian and Persian Gulplis, ar- 
rived at Calicut, on the Malabar coast, after a voyage of 150U 
leagues, performed iu thirteen months. 

4. De Gama ent( red into an alliance with the Rajah of 
Calicut, a tributary of the I'Mogul empire, and returned to 
Lisbon with sj)ecimcns of the wealth and produce of the 
couiitry. A succeeding licet formed settlements ; and van- 
quishing the opposition of the native princes, soon achieved 
the conquest of all the coast of Malal>ar. The city of Goa. 
taken by storm, became the residence of a Portuguese vice- 
roy, and the capital of their Indian settlemcnb?. 

5. The Venetians, who had hitherto engrossed the Indian 
trade by Alcxaudriiv, now lost it for ever. Allev an inelToci- 
ual project of cutting through the isthmus of Suez, thc^ at- 
tempted to intercept the PortyguoHe by their fleets stationed 
at the mouth of the Ked Se.i^and Per«ian Gulf, but were ev- 
ery where encountered b^a superior force. The Portuguese 
made settlements in both the gtilfs, and vigorou-ly prose- 
cuted their conquests on the Indian coast and sea. The 
rich I.-Iand of Ceylon, the kingdoms ©f Peg\i, Siam^ and Ma- 
Jacca, were «|>eedily suUbicd, and a settlement established 
in Bengal. 'I'hey i>roceeded onward to China, hitherto 
scarcely known to the Europeans but by Uie account of a sin- 
gle Venetian traveller, Marco Paolo, in the thirteenth centu- 
ry ; and they obtained the Kmperor's permission to form a 
settlement at Macao : tlui*. opening a commerce with that 
immense emjure, and the ncii^hbouring islands of Japan. In 
the s])acc of lifty years, the Portuguese were masters of the 
whole trade of the Indian Ocean, and sovereigns of a large 
extent of Asiatic territory. 

G. These discoveries produced a wonderful elTect on tiie 
commerce of Europe. The produce of the spice islands w;ii 
computed to be worth annually 200, U(X) ducats to Lisbon. 
The Venetians, after every efl^i^rt to destroy the trade of the 
Portuguese, ofl'ered to become sole purchasers of all the 
spice brought to Europe, but were refused. Commercial 
industry was roused in every quarter, and manufactures made 
a rapid progress. Lyons, Tours, Abbeville, Marseilles, P>or^f 
deaux; acquired immense wcidth. Antwerp and Amstec^ 



SECT. 36. MODERN HISTORV. 231 

dam became the great marts of the north. The former ow- 
ed its splendour to the decline of Bruges, which was ruined 
by civil commotions ; and the Portuguese made Antwerp 
their entrepot for the supply of the northern kingdoms. It 
continued highly flourishing till the revolt of the Netherlands, 
in the end of the sixteenth century, when it was taken by 
the Spaniards, and its port destroyed by blocking up the 
Scheldt. 

7. The trade of Holland rose on the fall of Antwerp. 
Amsterdam had become considerable after the decline of 
the Hanseatic confederacy in 1428, but rose into splendour 
and high commercial opulence from the destruction of Ant- 
werp : and the United Provinces, dependent on industry 
nlone for their support, became a model of commercial acti- 
vity to all other nations. 

8. It is not to be doubted that Britain felt the effect of 
that general stimulus wliich the Portiiguose discoveries gave 
to the trade of Europe ; but other causes had a more sensi- 
ble operation to th;\t end in England. The Reformation, by 
suppressing the convents, and restoring many thousands to 
society, and the cutting off the Papal exactions, which drain- 
ed the kingdom of its wealth, the politic laws passed in the 
reign of Jieiiry VIU. and the active patriotism of Elizabeth, 
were vigorous incentives to national industry. 

?. From the time of Henry VIN. to tlie present, \ho com- 
merce and manufactures of England have hccn unitbrmly 
progressive. The rental of England in lands and houses did 
not then exceed five millions per annuni ; it is now above 
eighteen millions. The unmanufactured wool of one year's 
growth is supposed to be worth two millions ; when manu- 
factured, as it now is, by British hands, ijistead of being sent 
abroad as formerly for that purj)ose, it is worth eight mil- 
lions. Above a million and a half of hands are employed in 
that manufacture alone ; halt' a million are employed in 
the niDUufactures of iron, steel, C43ppcr, brass, lend ; the lin- 
en manufactures of England, Scotland, and Ireland, occupy 
near a million ; and a number not much inferior is employ- 
ed in the tisheries. It is presumable, on the whole, that near- 
ly a Iburth of the population of the United Kingdom is actu- 
ally employed in commerce and manufactures. 

K). The Viist increase of the national wealth of Britain ap>- 

€ars chiefly, 1. From the increase of population, which is 
pposed to be nearly live to one (at least in the large cities) 
-incc the reign of Elizabeth ; '2. From the great addition 
uade to the cultivated lands of the kingdom, a )d the liigh 
improvement ol agriculture since that period, whence more 



232 modsun historv. tiKu u 

than quadruple the quantity of food i^ produceJ ; 3. From 
the increas^e of the conrainerciid shjp|)ing, at least six-fold 
within the same time ; 4. From the comparative low rate of 
interest, which is demonstrative of the mcrease of wealth. 
The const-quences of the ditlusion of the commercial spirit 
are most important to the national welfare : From general 
indu-^try arise** influence, joined to a spirit of independence ; 
and on this spirit rests the freedom of the British constitution, 
and all the blessings wc enjoy under its protection. 



XXW 11. 

fiTRMANV AND FRANCE IS TUE REIGNS OK CHARLCS V. AX» 

JrRANCIS I. 

1 . AVe resume the detail di' the history of Kurope at the 

bci;;inning of the sixteenth century ; previously remarkini:. 
lliat the CJermanir empire roiitinued forahove filly years lu 
a state of languitl tranqmililv, from the time of All>ert II., 
ihe successor of Sigismund, dunrii:; the long reign of Frede- 
rick 111., whose son .Maximilim acquired, by his marriage 
%viih .Mary Duchess of Burgundy, the sovereignty of the Ne- 
tlierhinds. Maximilian was elected Emj)cror in 14'J3 ; and, 
by establishing a porpetual peace between the separate Hcr- 
iiumic states, lai<l the fmiiidation of the subsequent irraiuliur 
of the empire. 

2. Philip Archthiko fM Austria, *un of Mnxiriulian. marri- 
ed Jane, lh»* d.mgiiler "f Ferdinantl and Isabella ; and of 
that naarriago the eldest son was Charles V., who succeeded 
to the tiirone oC Spam in 1 ')!♦>, and who, on the drath of hw 
grandt'ather Maximdian, preferred hi« chum to tiie vacant 
imperial throne. He had for his competitor Francis I. of 
France, who had distinguislunl him-'cif 1»> the conquest of 
the Milanese, and the adjustment of tlie contending interest! 
of the llnhan states. The German Flectors, afraid of the 
exorbitant power both of Charles and of Francis, wouM have 
rejected both, and conlV.ii-ed the inq)orial crown on Frede- 
rick Duke of Saxony , but this extraordinary man declined 
the prolTer'jd <hguity, and Iih counsel determined the elec- 
tion in favour ol Chail ^s of Austria, 1;')19. 

3. Charles V. mi Franci« 1. were now declared enemies, 
and their mutu.d -^l linv. on each other's dominions \vere th( 
subject of perpetu;! hostility. Th<' Emperor claimed Artou 
as part of the rl^ctherlandi. Francis prepared to make goo4 



S£(>T. ^7, MOUERN HISTORY. 



loo 



his right to the two Sicilies, Charles had to delend Milan, 
and support his title to Navarre, which had been wrested from 
France by his grandfather Ferdinand. Henry \ HI. ot'F^ng- 
land was courted by the rival monarchs, as the weight of 
England was sufficient to turn the scale, where the power of 
each was nearly balanced. 

4. The tirst hoi«tile attack was made by Francis on the 
kingdom of Navarre, which he won and lost in the course of 
a few months. The Emperor attacked Picardy, and his troops 
at the same time drove the French out of the iMilanese. On 
the death of Leo X., Charles placed Cardinal Adrian on the 
Papal throne. 1521 ; and by the promise of elevating Wol- 
sey, the minister of Henry V 111., to that dignity, on tlie 
death of Adrian, gained the alliance of the Englisii monarch 
in his war against France. 

t>. At this critical time Francis imprudently quarrelled 
with his best general, the Constable of Bourbon, who, in re- 
venge, deserted to the Emperor, and was by him invested 
with the chief command of his armies. The injperial gene- 
rals were far superior in abilities to their opponents. The 
French were defeated at Bijigrassa, and Charles was carry- 
ing every thing before him in Italy, when Francis entered 
the Milanese, and retook the capital ; but in tlie subsequent 
battle of Pavia, his troops were entirely defeated, and the 
French monarch became the Constiible of Bourbon's? prison 
er, 152.3. 

(I. The Emperor*made no advantage of his good fortune 
By the treaty of Madrid Francis regained his liberty, on 
yielding to Charles the Duchy of Burgundy, and the superi- 
ority of Flanders and Artois. He gjive his two sons as hos- 
tages for the fiiUiinient of these conditions ; but the states re- 
fused to ratify th^m. ;iii(l ibc i'ailure was compromised lor a 
sum of money. 

7. On a renewal ol the war, Henry VMII. took jjurt willi 
France, and Charles lost an opportunity of ol)tainin<' the 
sovereignty of Italy. The papal army in the French inte- 
rest was defeated by the Constable of Bourbon, and the Popr 
himself made prisoner ; i)ut liourbon was killed in the siege 
of Kome, and Ciiarles allowed the Pope to purchase his re- 
lease. 

8. After the conclusion of the pe;ice of Cambray, 1529, 
Charles visited Italy, and received the imperial diadem from 
Pope Clement VII. The Turks having invaded Hungary, 
the F'mperor marched against them in person, and compel- 
1*^(1 the Sultan Solyman, with an army of 300,000 men, to 

ijio country. He soon after embarked for Africa^ 
2} 



MODERN inSTOIW. PART j; 



t«) rri'liu t' tlic> drthroneii Muley H:is?an in U»e sovereignty 
of Tunis and Algioi-., whkh had been usurped by Haynulin 
liarbarossa, and he acliieved the enterprise with honour. 
His reputation exceeded at this period that of all the Sove- 
reigns of Kurope, both for political ability, lor real power, 
and the extent and opulence of his dominions. 

o. Francis wax ^hu\ to ally himself even wiih liie Turks 
to cope with the Imperialists, aiui liarbarossa invaded Italy ; 
but the troops of Charles prevented the co-operation of the 
Trench, and separately defeated .md dispersed {\iv allied pow- 
ers, while another army nf ilio linpenaii>t-i ravajrcd Cliani- 
paj^jne and Ficardy. 

10. In the interval of a truce, which was concluded at 
Nice for ten years between the ri\ al monarchs, Charles pass- 
ed throu2;h France to the Netherlands, and wits entertained 
by Francis with the most niasjiiificcnt hospitality. He had 
promised to grant to the French Kiui^ his favourit»- desire, the 
investiture of Milan ; but failing to keep his word, the war 
was renewed with double animosity. The French and Turk- 
ish tleets attackeil Nice, but were dispersed by the (Jenoesc 
admiral, Andrea Doria. In Italy the French were victori- 
ous in the battle of Cerizeles, but drew no benefit from this 
partial advantage. The lmperiali>(s on the whoh> had a de- 
cided superiority, and France mtisl ha\e been undone, had 
not the disorders of Germany, Irom tiic contending interests 
of the Catholirs and Protectants, forced the Kmpert)rto con- 
clude the treaty olC'repi with Francis, 1544 ; who, at the 
•ame time, purchased a peace with Henry VIII., who had 
once more taken part with his rival. Francis died soon af- 
ter, 1547 ; a prini e of gr»'at spirit and abilities, and of a ge- 
nerous and noble mind, unfortunate only from the necessity 
of strugglin-; against a power which over-matrhed him both 
in policy and in resources. 

n. A short lime before this perio«l was founded (1536) 
the order of the .lesuits bv lirnatius Loyola. The principle 
*}t the order was implicit obedience and submission to the 
Pope. The brethren were not contined to their cloisters, 
but allowed to mix with the world : and tliu«, by trainini; the 
confidence of primes and statesmen, tiiey were enabled to 
direct the ])olicy of nations to the great end of establishing 
the supreme authority of the Holy See. The wealth they 
accumulated, the extent of their power, and the supposed 
c ^nscquences of their intrigues to the ])eace of nations, ex- 
cited at length a general hostility to their order ; and the in- ^ 
stitution has recently been abolished in all the kingdoms of 1 
Europe. ^ 




SECT. 38. MODERN HISTORY. ■^■.O 

12. If Charles V. aimed at universal empire, he was ever 
at a distance from the object of his wishes. The formidable 
confederacy of the Protestants to preserve their hberties and 
th€ir religion, cave him perpetual disquiet in Germany. Ue 
never could form his dominions into a well connected body, 
from the separate national interests of the Spaniards, Flem- 
ish, and Germans : and even the Imperi.d states were divid- 
ed by their jealousies, polilicid and religious. The hostili- 
ties of foreign powers gave him continual annoyance. He 
found in Henrv II., the successor of Francis, an antagonist 
as formidable as his father. His cares and dilhculties increas- 
ed as he advanced in life, and at length entirely broke the 
vigour of his mind. In a state of melancholy despondency, 
he retired from the world at the age of tifty-six, resigning 
tirst the kingdom of Spain to bis son I'bilip 11., 1566, and af- 
terwards the Imperial crown in favour of his brother Fcrdi 
nand, who was elected Emperor 21th Febiuiry, 1558. 



,1^ 



XXXVllI, 



IISERVATIG.NS ON THE CONSTITUTION OK THC Ol.IlMAN LM- 

riRF. 

1. Previocs to the roign oi .\ia\iiiiilian 1., the Goiniauic 
i-mpire was subject to all the disonlcrs of the feudal govern- 
ments. The general diets of tlic st'ates were tumultuous and 
mdecisive, and their constant wars with each other kept the 
whole in anarchy and barbarism. ^Vcnce8laus, in 1383, en- 
deavoured to remedy these evils by the enactment of a ge- 
neral peace ; but no eficftual means were taken for securing 
it. Albert II. attemj»ted to accomplish the same end, and 
had some success. He divided Germany into six circles, 
each regulated by its own diet ; but the jealousies of the 
states prompted them constantly to hostilities, which there 
was no superior power sulhcient to rcftlrain. 

2. At length Maximilian I. procured, in 1600, that so- 
lemn enactment which established a perpetual peace among 
the Germanic states, under the cogent p( nalty of the aggres- 
sor beinfif treated as a common enemy. He estjiblished the 
Imperial Chamber for the settlement of all differences. The 
em|)ire was divided anew into ten circles, each sending its 
representatives to the Imperial Chamber, and bound to cn- 
'''»rcr the public laws through its own territorj. A rc?cnc;v' 



J36 MODERN HI&TORY. FART il. 

\va* appointed to subsist in the iivtervals of the diet, compos- 
.1 (»f twenty members, over whom tlie Emperor presided. 

3. Tliese regulations, however wise, would probably have 
failed of their end, but for the inducnce of the liouse of Aus- 
tria, which has for three centiiries continued to occupy the 
Imperial throne. The ambition and policy of Charles V. 
rvould have been dangerous to tlie freedom of the Cierman 
princes, had not the new system of preserving a balance of 
power in Europe made these princes tind allies and protect- 
ors sutbcicnl to t^a^;e^se the Emperor's schemes ol absolute 
dominion. He attained, however, an authority far beyond 
that of any of his predecessors. The succeeding Emperors 
imitated his j)olic3', but without his talents, and therefore 
found yet stronger obstacles to their encroachments on the 
freedom of the states. 

4. The Germanic liberties were settled for the last time 
by the treaty of Westphalia, in 1648, which fixed the Empe- 

or's prerogatives, and the privileges of the states. The con- 
.ilitution of the empire is not framed for the ordinary ends ol 
Sjovernment, the prosperity and happiness of the people. It 
regards not the rights of the subjects, but only the indepen- 
dence of the several princes ; and its sole object is to main- 
. tain each in the enjoyment of its sovereignty, and prevent 
usurpations, and encroachments on each other's territories, 
ft'lias no relation to the particular government of the states, 
OYich of whii,h has its own laws and constitution, some more 
free, and others more despotic. 

6. The general diet has the power of enacting the public 
laws of the empire. It consists of three colleges, the Elec- 
tors, tlie Princes, and the Free Cities. All such public laws, 
and all general nuiasurcs, are the subject of the se|)arate de- 
liberation ol" the electoral college and that of the princes. 
V'hen jointly approved by them, the resolution is canvassed 
vv the college of the Free Cities, and, if agreed to, becomes 
Aplucltum of the empire. If approved linally by the Emi)e- 
ror, it is a conclusvm or general law. If disapproved, the 
resolution is of no effect. Moreover, the Emj)eror must br 
the proposer of all general laws. Still furihe r, no complaiHt 
gr request otm be made by any of the princes to the diet with- 
wut tin'- approbation of the Elector Archbishop of '^i ' ^\ !i 
jjay rctuse it at his pleasure. These constituti« i : > i- > i 
.: e the more hurtful in their consequences from the scpa^ 
.ate and often contending interests of the j)rinces, who have 
ill the rights of sovereignty, the power of co^htracting for- 
eign alliances, and are frequently possessed of foreign do- 
minions of far greater value than their Imperial territorie». 



SECT. 39. MO»BRN HIST©EY. 2S-« 

6. The Germanic constitution lias, howerer, lu some re- 
spects its advantages. The particular diets of each circle 
tend to unite those princes in all matters of national concern, 
whatever may be the discordance of their individual inte- 
rests. The regulations made in those deits make up for the 
want of a general legislative power. Besides the circular 
diets, the Electors, the Princes, the Free Cities, the Catholics, 
and the Protestants, hold their particular diets, when their 
common interests require it ; and these powers balance each 
other. Considered, therefore, solely in the light of a league 
of several independent princes and states associating for their 
common benefit, the Germanic constitution has many advan- 
tages, in promoting general harmony, securing the rights of 
its members, and preventing the weak from being oppresse<2 
by the strong. 



XXXIX. 

•F THE REFORMATION IST GERM.ANV AND SWITZERLAND, A^D 
THE REVOLUTION IN DENMARK AND SWEDEN. 

1. The age of Charles V. is the era of the Keformatiou 
of religion, of the discovery of the New World, and of the 
highest splendour of the tine arts in Italy and the south ot 
Europe. We shall treat in order of each of these great ob 
jects ; and, first, of the Reformation. 

The voluptuous taste and the splendid projects of Pope 
Leo X. demanding large supj)lies of money, he instituted! 
through all the Christian kingdoms a sale of indulgences, or 
remittances from the pains of purg-atory. This traffic being 
abused to the most shocking purposes, Martin Luther, an Au- 
gustine friar, took upon him to preach against it, and to in- 
veigh with acrimony against the pov/er whirh authorised it. 
He found many willing hearers, particularly in the electorate 
of Saxony, of which the Prince Frederick was his friend and 
protector. Leo X. condemned his tenets by a Pai)al boll, 
which ooly increased the zeal and indignation of the preach 
er. In a book he published, called the Babylojiish Captivity^ 
he ap]:lied all the scriptural attributes of the whore of Baby- 
lon to the Papal hierarchy, and attacked with equal force and 
virdlence the doctrines of transubstanliation, purgatory, tlie 
celibacy of the priests, and the refusal of wine in the com- 
munion to the people. The book beini: condemnecf io t)re 

21* 



^38 MODERN HISTORy. PART U- 

Uames, Luther took upon liim to burn lh« Pope's bull and 
the tiecrelals ;it Wittembrri:, 1">20. 

2. One of the tirst champiuns who took up the pen against 
Luther was Henry Vlll. of England, whose book, presented 
to Pope Leo, procured him the title, now annexed to his 
crown, of Defender of the Taitti. The rest of Europe seem- 
ed to pay little attention to these rising controversies. 
Charles V., studious of the f^iend^hip of the Pope, took pan 
again.««t Luther, and summoned him to answer for his doc- 
trines in the diet of ^V(>^ms. The Reformer defended him- 
flelf with great spirit, and, ai«led by his friend the Elector, 
made a safe escape into Saxony, where the mass was now 
universally abolished, the images destroyed, and the convents 
-hut up. The friars and nuns returned to the world, and 
Luth« r took a nun for his wife. Nor did these secularized 
priests abu.<e their new freedom, for their manners were dc- 
< ent, and their life exemplary. 

3. Erasmu«^ h;i'<Ju'«tly ren!*ured the impolicy of the Cath- 
olic cleri^y in their m«de«< of re^-i-ting and suppressing the 
new doctrines. They allowed them to be discussed in ser- 
mons before the j)eopb', ami employed for that ptirpose furi- 
• Mis and bigotted ileclaimers, who only increased and widen- 
"d dilVercnces. They would not yield in the most insigniti 
•ant tritle, nor a( knowledge a single fault ; and they persc- 
. uled with tlie utmo^t cruelly all whose opiruons were not 
agreeable to their own standard of faith. How wise is the 
i ounsel of Lord Bacon I " There is no better way to stop 
" the rise of new sects and schisms, than to reform abuses, 

' compound the lesser differences, proceed mildly from the 

• first, refrain from sanc;uinary persecutions, and ratlier to 
'• soften and win the principal leaders, by tjracing and advan- 

• cini; them, than to enrage them by violence and bitter 
•* ness" {Bar. Mor. Kss. Sect. 1. Ess. I'i.) 

4. Switzerlantl followed in the path of reformation.- — 
Zuinglius of Zurich preached forth the new tenets with such 
zeal and effect, that the whole canton were his converts, and 
the senate j)ul)licly abolished the mass, and purified the 
churches. Berne took the sam(> measures uitb yet greater 
solemnity, after a discussion in the senate which lasted two 
months. Bale imitated the s.ime example. Others of the 
cantons armed in detence of their faitli ; ami iji a desperate 
engagement, in which the Protestants were defeated, Zuin- 
glius was slain, 1 o^l. 

5. Luiheranism was now makini; its prosrress towards the 
north of Europe. Sweden, Denmark, and Norway, were at 
tkis time goTerned by Christiern II. , the Nero of the ror^h 



SECT. 39. MODERN HISTORY. 239 

The Swedes, reluctantly 3ubmitting to the yoke, were kept 
in awe by Troll, Archbishop of Upsal, a faithful minister of 
the tyrant in all his schemes of oppression and cruelty. On 
intelligence of a revolt, the King and his primate, armed with 
a bulltrom Pope Leo X., massacred the whole body of the 
nobles and senators, amidst the festivity of a banquet. Gus- 
tavus Vasa, grand-nephew of Charles Canutson, formerly 
King of Sweden, escaped from this carnage, and concealed 
himself in the mines of Dalecarlia. By degrees assembling 
a small army, he defeated the generals of Christiern, whose 
cruelties at length determined the united nations to vindicate 
their rights, by a solemn sentence of deposition. The ty- 
rant fled to Flanders, and Frederick Duke oC Holstein was 
elected Sovereign of the three kingdoms, though Sweden, 
adhering to her heroic deliverer, and the heir of her ancient 
Kings, acknowledges! alone the sovereignty of Gustavus Va- 
sa, 1521. The bull of Leo X. and Us bloo<iy consequences, 
were sufficient to convert Sweden and Denmark to the te- 
nets of the retbrmed religion. Gustavus enjoyed his ?ceptre 
many years in peace, and contributed greatly to the happi- 
ness and prosperity of his kingdom. 

6. As early as \b25, the states of Saxony, Brunswick, 
Hesse Cassel, and the cities of Strasburgh and Frankfort, had 
embraced the doctrines of the Reformation. Luther had 
now a species of spiritual control, which he exercised by the 
medium of a synod of six reformers. His successful exam- 
ple gave rise to reformers of difl'erent kinds, whose doctrine? 
were less consonant to reason or good policy. Two fanat- 
ics of Saxony, Storck and .Muncer, condenmed infant bap- 
tism (hence termed Anabaptists). They preached up uni- 
versal equality and freedom of religious opinion, but, with 
•lingular inconsistency, attem[)ted to [iropagate their doc- 
trines by the sword. They were defeated at Mulhausen, 
and Muncer died on a scaffold ; but the party seemed to ac- 
quire new courage. They surjirised Munster, expelled the 
Bishop, and anointed tor their King a tailor named Jack of 
Leyden, who defended the city with the most desperate cour- 
age, but fell at length with his party under the superior force 
of regular troops. The Anabtiptists, thus sanguinary in theip 
original tenets and practices, have long ago become peacea- 
ble and harmless subjects. 

7. The united power of the Pope and Emperor found it 
impossible to check the proa:ress of the Kelurmation. The 

'let of Spires proposed articles of accommodation between 
nie Lutherans and Catholics. Fourteen cities of German}', 
arndscTcrol of the Electors, protested ibrmerly against tliof'e 



240 MODERN HISTORY, PART II. 

articles ; and hence the Lutheran party acquired the name o/ 
Protestants. They presented to the assembly at Augsburg 
a confession of their faith, which is the standard of the Prot- 
estant doctrines. 

8. The virtuous lives and conduct of the Protestant lead- 
ers, compared with those of the higher clergy among the 
Catholics, formed a contrast very favourable to the progress 
of the Reformation. The solemn manner in which the 
States of Switzerland, and particularly Geneva, had proceed- 
ed, in calmly discussing every point of controversy, and 
yielding only to the force of rational conviction, attracted 
the respect of all Europe. John Calvin, a Frenchman, be- 
coming a zealous convert to the new doctrines, was the first 
who gave them a systematic form by his Institutions, and en- 
forced their authority by the establishment of synods, con- 
sistories, and deacons. The magistracy of Geneva gave 
these ordinances the authority of the law ; and they were 
adopted by six of the Swiss cantons, by the Protestants of 
France, and the Presbyterians of Scotland and England. — 
The ablest advocates of Calvin will find it difficult to vindi- 
cate him from the charge of intolerance and the spirit of per- 
secution ; but these, which are the vices or defects of the in- 
dividual, attach not in the least to the doctrines of the Ref» 
ormation, which are subject to the test of reason, and can de- 
rive no blemish or dishonour from the men who propagated 
them, or even the motives which might influence some of 
their earliest supports. This observation applies more par- 
ticularly to the subject of the ensuing section. 



XL. 



aP THE REFORMATION IN ENGLAND UNDER HENRY VIII. AND 
HIS SUCCESSORS. 

1. WicKLiFFE, in the middle of the fourteenth century, by 
an attack on the doctrines of transubstantiation, indulgences, 
and auricular confession, and yet more by translation of the 
Scriptures into the vernacular tongue, had prepared the 
minds of the people of England for a revolution in religious 
©pinions ; but his professed followers were not numerous. 
The intemperate passions of Henry VIII. were the immedi- 
ate cause of the Reformation in England. He had been 
married for eighteen years to Catharine of Spain, aunt of 
Charles V., by whom he had three children,, one of them 



#EGT. 40. jyiODERN HISTORY. 241 

Mary, afterwards Queen of England ; when falling in love 
with Anne Bullen, he solicited Clement VII. for a divorce 
from Catharine on the score of her former marriage to his 
elder brother Arthur. The Pope found himself in the pain- 
ful dilemma of either affronting the Emperor, or mortally of- 
fending the King of England. In hope that the King's pas- 
sion might cool, he spun oif the time by preliminaries and 
negociations, but to no purpose. Henry was resolutely bent 
on accomplishing his wishes. The Sorbonne and otheF 
French Universities gave an opinion in his favour ; and arm- 
ed with this sanction he caused Cranmer Archbishop of Can- 
terbury to annul his marriage. The repudiated Q,ueen gave 
place to Anne Bullen. On this occasion Wolsey, the mhiis- 
ter of Henry, lost the favour of his master, by opposing, as 
was believed, his darling measure. 

2. Clement VII., from this specimen of the wayward tem- 
per of Henry, resolved to keep well with the Emperor, and 
issued his bull, condemnatory of the sentence of the Arch- 
bishop of Canterbury. Henry immediately proclaimed him- 
self Head of the Church of England ; Uie parliament ratifi- 
ed his title, and the Pope's authority was instantly suppressed 
in all his dominions, 1534. He proceeded to abolish the mo- 
nasteries, and confiscate their treasures and revenues, erect- 
ing out of the latter six new bishoprics nvA a college. The 
immoralities of the monks were sedulously exposed, the for- 
gery of relics, false miracles, &:c. held up to the popular 
scorn. 

3. Yet Henry, though a Reformer, and Pope in his own 
kingdom, had not renounced the religion of Rome ; he was 
equally an enemy to the tenets of Luther and Calvin, as to 
the Pope's jurisdiction in England. Inconstant in his affec- 
tions, and a stranger to all humanity, he removed Anne Bul- 
len from the throne to the scaffold, to gratify a new passion 
for Jane Seymour, a maid of honour, who happily died about 
a year after. To her succeeded Anne of Cleves, whom he 
divorced in nine months, to make way for Catharine Howard. 
She underwent the same fate with Anne Bullen, on a similar 
suspicion of infidelity to his bed. His sixth wife, Catharine 
Parr, with difficulty retained her hazardous elevation, but had 
the good fortune to survive the tyrant. 

4. On the death of Henry Vril., 1547, and the accession 
of his son Edward VI., the Protestant religion prevailed in 
England, and was favoured by the Sovereign ; but he died at 
the early age of fifteen, 1563 ; and the sceptre passed to the 
hands of his sister Mary, an intolerant Catholic, and most 
cruel persecutor of the Protestants. In her reign , which was 



242 MODERN HISTORY. PART ;i. 

but of five years' duration, above 800 miserable victims were 
burnt at a stake, martyrs to their religious opinions. Mary 
inherited a congenial spirit with her husband, Philip II. of 
Spain, whose intolerance cost him the loss of a third part of 
his dominions. 

5. Mary was succeeded (1 558) by her sister Elizabeth, the 
daughter of Anne Bullen, a Protestant, and the more zealous 
from an abhorrence of the character of her predecessor. In 
her reign the religion of England became stationary. The 
hierarchy was established in its present form, by archbishops, 
bishops, priests, and deacons, the King being by law the 
Head of the Church. The liturgy had been settled in the 
reign of Edward VI. The canons are agreeable chiefly to 
the Lutheran tenets. 

Of the Reformation in Scotland, we shall afterwards trea\ 
under a separate section. 



XLI. 

OF THE DISCOVERY AND CONQUEST OF AMERICi. 

1. Among those great events which distinguished the age 
of Charles V., was the conquest of Mexico by Ferdinando 
Cortez, and of Peru by the Pizarros. The discovery of 
America had preceded the first of these events about twen- 
ty-seven years ; but we have postponed the mention of it till 
now, that the whole may be shortly treated in connexion. 

Christopher Columbus, a Genoese, a man of enterprising 
spirit, having in vain solicited encouragement from his native 
state, from Portugal, and from Engbind, to attempt discove- 
ries in the western seas, applied to Ferdinand and Isabella of 
Spain, who furnished him with three small ships, ninety men. 



and a few thousand ducats for the charges of his voyage.] 
After thirty-three days sail from the Canaries, he discovered* 
San Salvador, and soon after the islands of Cuba and Hispa- 
niola ; whence returning, accompanied with some of the na- 
tives, some presents in gold, and curiosities of the country, 
he was treated by the Spaniards with the highest honours, 
and soon supplied with a suitable armament for the prosecu- 
tion of his discoveries. In his second voyage he discovered' 
the Caribbees and Jamaica. In a third voyage he descried 
the continent of America, within ten degrees of the line, to- 
wards the isthmus of Panama. To this continent the Geo- 
grapher Americus, who, five years after, followed the foot- 



SECT. 41. MODERN HISTORY. 243 

steps of Columbus, had the undeserved honour of givino- his 
name. 

2. The inhabitants of America and its Islands were a race 
of men quite new to the Europeans. They are of the co- 
lour of copper, and have no beard. In some quarters, as in 
Mexico and Peru, the Spaniards found a flourishing empire, 
and a people polished, refined, and luxurious. In others, 
man was a naked savage, the member of a wandering tribe, 
whose sole occupation was hunting or war. The savages of 
the continent were characterized alike by their cruelty to 
their enemies, their contempt of death, and their generous 
affection for their friends. The inhabitants of the islands 
were a milder race, of gentler manners, and less hardy con- 
formation of body and mind. The larger animals, as the 
horse, the cow, were unknown in America. 

3. To the inhabitants of those new-discovered countries, 
which were believed to contain inexhaustible treasures, the 
Spaniards, under the pretence of religion and policy, con- 
ducted themselves with the most shocking inhumanity. The 
rack, the scourge, the faggot, were employed to convert them 
to Christianity. They were hunted down like wild beasts, 
or burnt alive in their thickets and fastnesses, Hispaniola, 
containing three millions of inhabitants, and Cuba, contain- 
ing above six hundred thousand, were, in a few years, abso- 
lutely depopulated. It was now resolved to explore the 
continent ; and Ferdinando Cortez, with eleven ships and 
617 men, sailed for that purpose from Cuba in 1519. Land- 
ing at Tabasco, he advanced, though with a brave opposition 
from the natives, into the heart of the country. The state 
of Tlascala, after ineffectual resistance, became the ally of 
the Spaniards ; and, on their approach to Mexico, the terror 
of their name had paved the way for an easy conquest. 

4. The Mexican empire, though founded little more than 
a century before this period, had arisen to great splendour. 
Its Sovereign Montezuma received the invaders with the re- 
verence due to superior beings. But a short acquaintance 
opened the eyes of the Mexicans ; and finding nothing in the 
Spaniards beyond what was human, they were daring enough 
to attack, and put to death a few of them. The intrepid Cor- 
tez immediately marched to the palace with fifty men, and 
putting the Emperor in irons, carried him off prisoner to his 
camp. The astonished Mexicans submitted to every term, 
and agreed to redeem their sovereign by the surrender of all 
the imperial treasures. 

6. Velasquez, governor of Cuba, jealous of Cortez, at- 
tempted to supersede him, by dispatching a superior army to 



'244 MODERN HISTORY. PAP-X I 

the continent ; but the latter defeating his troops, compelled 
them to join his own banners. In an attack from the Mexi- 
cans for the rescue of their Sovereign, Montezuma having 
oflered to mediate between the Mexicans imd their enemies^ 
was indignantly put to death by one of his own subjects. 
The whole empire, under its new Sovereign, Guatimozin, 
was now armed against the Spaniards ; and while the plain.- 
were covered with their archers and spearmen, the lake of 
Mexico was tilled with armed canoes. To oppose the latter, 
the Spaniards built a few vessels under the walls of their city, 
and soon evinced their superiority on both elements to their 
feeble foe. The monarch was taken prisoner by the officers 
of Cortez, and refusing to discover his treasures, was stretch- 
ed naked on burning coals. Soon after, on the discovery of 
a conspiracy against the Spaniards, the wretched Guatimozin, 
with all the princes ol' his" Mood, were executed on a gibbet. 
This was the last blow to the power of the Mexicans, and 
Cortez was now absolute master of the whole empire, 1527. 

6. In the same year, 1527, Diego D'Almagro, and Francis , 
Pizarro, with 250 foot, 60 horse, and 12 small pieces of can- 1 
uon, landed in Peru, a large and llourishing empire, govern- 
ed by an ancient race of monarchs named lucas. The Inca 
Atabalipa receiving the Spaniards with reverence, they im- 
mediately required hirn to embrace the Christian faith, and 
surrender all his dominions to the Emperor Charles V'., 
who had obtained a gift of tliem from the Pope. I'he pro- 
posal being misunderstood, or received with hesitation, Pi- 
zarro seized the monarch as his prisoner, while his troops 
massacred 5000 of the Peruvians on the spot. Tke empire 
was now plundered of prodigious treasures in gold and pre- 
cious stone!^ ; but Atabalipa, being suspected of concealing a 
part from his insatiable invaders, was solemnly tried as a 
criminal, and strangled at a stake. 

7. The courage of the Spaniards surpassed even their 
inhumanity. D'Almagro marched 500 leagues, through con- 
tinual opposition, to Cusco, and penetrated across the Cor- J 
dilleras into Chili, two degrees beyond the southern tropic] 
He was slain in a civil war between him and his associate 
Francis Pizarro, who was soon after assassinated by the party 
of his riv;d. At thiiS time the Spaniards discovered the in 
exhaustible silver mines of Potosi, which they compelled tli 
Peruvians to work for their advantage. They are n^ '\ 
wrought by the negroes of Africa. The native Peruviaii>, 
who are a weakly race of men, were soon almost extermina- 
ted by cruelty and intolerable labour. The humane Pi'^'m p 
9f Chiapa remonstrated with success to Charles' V. on i'm^ j 



SECT. 42. yODERN IIISTORk'. 246 

subject, and the residue of this miserable people have been 
since treated with more indulgence. 

8. The Spanish acquisitions in America belong to the 
crown and not to the steite : they are the absolute property 
of the Sovereign, and regulated solely by his will. They 
are governed by the three viceroys of Mexico, Peru, and 
Terra Firma, who exercise supreme civil and mihtary au- 
thority ovei^their provinces. There are eleven courts of au- 
dience for the administration of justice, with whose judicial 
proceedings the viceroys cannot intefere ; and their judg- 
ments are subject to appeal to the Royal Council of the In- 
dies, whose jurisdiction extends to every department, ecclesi- 
astical, civil, military, and commercial. A tribunal in Spain, 
called Casa de la Contratacion, regulates the departure of the 
fleets, and their destination and equipment, under the control 
of the Council of the Indies. 

9. The gold and silver of Spanish America, though the ex- 
clusive property of the crown of Spain, has, by means of 
wars, marriages of princes, and extension of commerce, come 
into general circulation, and has greatly increased the quan- 
tity of specie, and diminished the value of money over all 
Europe. 



XLII. 

rOSSESSIONS OF THE OTHER EUROPEAX KATIONS IN AMERICA. 

1. The example of the Spaniards excited a desire in the 
other nations of Europe to participate with them in the riches 
of the New World. The French, in 1557, attempted to form 
a settlement on the coast of Brazil, where the Portuguese 
had already established themselves from the beginning of the 
century. The colony was divided by faction, atid was soon 
utterly destroyed by the Portuguese. It is one of the richest 
of the American settlements, both from the produce of its 
soil, and its mines of gold and precious stones. 

'2. The Spaniards were in possesBion of Florida, when the 
French attempted to colonise it in 1564, l>ut without success. 
The French then established a settlement in Canada, and 
founded Quebec in 1G08 ; but the colony was perpetually 
siil)jectto attack from the English. In 1629 the French had 
fiot a foot of territory in America. Canada has been repeat- 
edly taken by the English, and restored, by di/Terent treaties, 
to the French \ but it has now for many years been perma- 

22 



I 



Jlo MODERN HISTORY. PART 11. 

Houtly a British settlement. Tlie French drew their greatest 
advantages from the ishmds of St. Domingo, Guadaloupe, and 
Martinico. From their continental possessions of Louisiana, 
and the settlements on the .Mississippi, which they have now 
lost, they never derived any solid henelit. 

3, The Dutch have no other settlement on the continent 
of America hut Surinam, a part of Guiana ; and in the West 
Indies, the islands of Curassoa and St. Eustatius, The Danes 
possess the inconsiderable islands of St. Thomas and Santa 
Cruz. 

4. The British have extensive settlements on the conti- 
nent of America, and the West India ishmds. England deri- 
ved her right to her settlements in North America from the 
first discovery of the country by Sebastian Cabot in 1499, 
a few years after the discovery of Soutli America by Colum- 
bus ; but there were no attempts to colonise any part of the 
< ountry till about a century afterwards, when Sir AValter Ka- 
Icigh planted the colony of Virginia, so named in honour of 
iiis C|ueen. Nova Scotia was planted under James I., and 
New England in the rei<;n of Charles I., chielly by the refu- 
}Xee Purit:ms. New York and Peuns} Ivania were in the hands 
oi^ the Dutch, till concjuered by the English in the reign 
of Charles U., who granted a gift of the latter province, with 
a charter of privileges, to \N illiam Penn the Quaker. — 
Alaryland" was colonised in the time of Charles I. by Engli-^h 
Catholics. The Carohnas were settled in the reign of 
Charles II. Georgia was not colonised till the reign of 
(ieorge II. The Floridas were ceded to Britain by Spain at 
fhe ])eace of 176'^. 

6. The British American colonies, under which name we 
include the United States, are greatly inferior in natural rich- 
es to those of the Spani.irds, as they produce neillier silver 
nor gold, indigo nor cochineal ; but they are in general of 
tVrtile soil, and highly improved by industry ; and they aftbrd 
a most profit. ililo market tor home manulactures. 'I'he pro- 
duce ot the West India islands, .Jnmaica, Barbadoes, St. 
Christopher's, Antigua, the Granadas, 6:c. in sugar, cotton 
tobacco, &:c. is of very great value to the mother-country. 



XLIII. 

OF THE STATE OF THE FINE ARTS IN EUROPE IN THE AGE 

OF LEO X. 

1. In enumerating those great objects which characterised 
the ead of the fifteenth and beginning of the sixteenth centu- 



SECT. 43. MODERN fllSTORF. 247 

ry, we remarked the high advancement to which the fine 
arts att&ined in Europe in the age of Leo X. The strong 
bent which the human mind seems to take in certain peri- 
ods to one class of pursuits in preference to all others, as ia 
that age to the fine arts of painting, sculpture, and architect- 
ure, may be in part accounted for from moral causes ; such 
as the peaceful state of a country, the genius or taste of its 
Sovereigns, and their liberal encouragement of those arts ; 
the general emulation that arises where one or two artists 
are of confessed eminence ; and the aid which they derive 
from the studies and works of each other. These causes 
have doubtless great influence, but do not seem entirely suf- 
ficient to account for the phenomenon. The operation of 
such causes must be slow and gradual. In the case of the 
fine arts, the transition from obscurity to splendour was rap- 
id and instantaneous. From the contemptible mediocrity in 
which they had remained for ages, they rose at one step to 
the highest pitch of excellence. 

2. The arts of painting and sculpture were buried in the 
West under the ruins of the Roman empire. They gradual- 
ly declined in the latter ages, as we may perceive by the se- 
ries of the coins of the lower empire. The Ostrogroths, in- 
stead of destroying, sought to preserve the monuments of 
taste and genius. They were even the inventors of some 
of the arts dependent on design, as the composition of Mosa- 
ic. But in the middle ages, those arts were at a very low- 
ebb in Europe. They began, however, to revive a littlo 
about the end of the thirteenth century. Cimabue, a Flor- 
entine, from the sight of the paintings of some Greek artists 
in one of the churches, began to attempt similar performan- 
ces, and soon excelled his models. His scholars were, Glii- 
otto, Gaddi, Tasi, Cavallini, and Stephano Fiorentino ; and 
these formed an academy at Florence in 1350. 

3. The works of these early painters, with some fidelity of 
imitation, had not a spark of grace or elegance ; and such 
continued to be the state of the art till towards the end of 
the fifteenth centiiry, when it arose at once to the summit of 
perfection. Raphael painted at first in the hard manner of 
his master Perugino ; but soon deserted it, and struck at 
once into the noble, elegant, and graceful ; in short, the imi- 
tation of the antique. This change was the result of genius 
alone. The ancient sculptures were familiar to the early 
painters, but they had looked on ihem with cold indifference. 
They were now surveyed by other eyes. Michael Angelo, 
Raphaelj and Leonardo da Vinci, were animated bv the 



248 >fbDERN HISTORY. TART 11. 

«ame genius that formed the Grecian Apelles, Zeuxi?, Gly- 
con, Phidia*, and Praxitelc;*. 

4. Nor was lUily alone thus thstinguished. Germany, 
Flanders, and Switzerland, produced in the same age artists 
of consummate merit. Before the notice of these, w€ shall 
hrielly characterise the schools of Italy. 

5. First in order is the school of Florence, of which the 
most eminent master was Micliael Angelo, born in 1474. — 
His works are chira< teriscd by a profound knowledge of the 
anatomy of the human figure, perhaps chiefly formed on the 
rontcmi)lation of the ancient sculptures. His paintings ex- 
hibit the grand, the sublime, and terrible ; but he drew not 
from the antique its simple grace and beauty. 

t). The Koman school was founded by Kaphnel d*Urbino» 
born 1483. This great painter united almost every excel- 
lence of the art. In invention, grace, majestic simplicity, 
forcible expression of the passion?, he stands unrivalled, and 
far beyond all competition. Jle has borrowed liberally, but 
vvitliout servility, from the antique. 

7. Of the school of Lombardy, or (he Venetian, the most 
raiinent artists were, Titian, Giorgione, Corregio, and Par- 
ineii;giano. Titian is most eminent in portrait, and in the 
painting of female beauty. Such is the truth of his colour- 
ing, that his figures are nattire itself. It was the testimony of 
Michael Angelo to the merits of Titian, Lliat, if he had studi- 
ed at Kom6 or Florence amidst the cust^r-piec^S of antiqui- 
ty, he would have eclipsed all the painters in the Avorld. — 
(•iorgione, with similar merits, was cut off in the tlower oi 
his youth. Titian lived to the age of an hundred. Corre- 
^io was suj»erior in colouring, and knowledge* of light and 
shade, to all that hiive preceded or followed him. Thiij 
knowledge was the result of study ; in other painters those 
effects are Ircquently accidental, as we observe they are not' 
Hnitl»rm. Paniieggiano imitated the graceful manner of Ra- 
phael, but carried it to a degree of affectation. 

8. Such were the three original Italian schools. The 
haracter of the Florentine is grandeur and sublimity, with 

great excellence of design, but a want of grace, of skill in 
colouring, and effect of lii^ht and >hade. The character of 
the Roman is equal excellence of design, a grandeur temper- 
ed with moderation and simplicity, a high degree of gtace 
and eleg^ince, and a superior knowledge, though not an ex- 
cellence in colouring. The character of the Venetian is the 
perfection of colouring, and the utmost force of light and 
shade, with an inferiority in every other particular. 

9. To the school of Raphael succeeded the second Romai 



seer. 4S. MODERN HISTOR't. 249 

school, or that of the Caraccis, three brothers, of whom An- 
nibal was tlie most excellent. His scholars were, Guercino, 
Albano, Lanfranc, Domenichino, and Guide. Of these, 
though all eminent painters, the tirst and last were the most 
excellent. The elegant contours of Guercino, and the 
strength, sweetness, and majesty of Guido. are the admira- 
tion of all true judges of painting. 

10. In the same age, the Flemish school, though of -a 
quite ditferent character, and interior to the Italian, shone 
with great lustre. Oil painting was inventeeJ by the Flem- 
ings in the fifteenth century : and, in that age, Heemskirk, 
Frans Floris, Quintin Matsys, and the German Albert Durer, 
were deservedly distinguished. Of the Flemish school Ru- 
bens, though a painter of a much later age, is the chief or 
nament. His tigures, though too corpulent, are drawn with 
great truth and nature, and he possesses inexhaustible inven 
tion, and great skill in the expression of the passions. Swit- 
zerland produced Hans Holbem, a painter of great eminence 
in portrait, and remarkable for truth of colouring. Of hie- 
works, from his residence at the court of Henry V^III., tliere 
are more specimens in Britain than those of any other for- 
eign painter. — Holland had likewise its painters, whose chiei 
merit was the faithful representation of vulgar nature, and 
perfect knowledge of the mechanism of the art, the power 
of colours, and the eftect ol' light and shade. 

n. With the art ol' painting, sculpture and architecture 
were likewise revived in the same age, and brougiit to high 
perfection. The universal genius of Michael Angelo shone 
equally conspicuous in all tlie three dej)artments. His stat- 
ue of Bacchus was judged by Raphael to be the work of 
Phidias or Praxiteles. The Grecian architecture was tirst 
revived by the Florentines in the fourteenth century ; and 
the cathedral of Pisa was constructed partly from the materi- 
als of an ancient Greek temple. The art arrived at high per- 
fection in the age of Leo X., when the church of St. Peter's 
at Rome, under the direction of Bramante, San Gallo, Ra- 
phael, and Michael Angelo, exhibited the noblest specimen 
of architecture in the universe. 

12. The invention of the art of engraving on copper by 
Tomaso Finiguerra, a goldsmith of Florence, is dated about 
1460. From Italy it travelled into Flanders, where it was 
first practised by Martin Schocn of Antwerp. His scholai 
was the celebrated Albert Durer, who engraved with excel- 
lence both on copper and on wood. Etching on copper by 
means of aqua-fortis, which gives more ease than the stroke 
^( the graver, was discovered by Paruieggiano, who execu- 

90* 



250 MODERN HISTORT. PART U, 

ted in that manner his o\tii beautiful designs. No art under- 
nent, in its early stages, so rapid an improvement as that oi* 
engraving. In the course of 150 years from its invention, 
it atl;iined nearly to its perlection ; for there has been but 
little proportional improtement in the last century, since the 
days of Audran, Poilly, and Kdelinck. 

13. The art of engraving in mezzotinto is of much later 
date than the ordinary mode of engraving on copper. It 
was the invention of Prince Rupert about IGoO. It is cha- 
racterized by a softness equal to that of the pencil, and a 
bappy blending of light and shade, and is therefore peculiarly 
adapted to portrait, wlicre those requisites are most essential. 

1 4. The age of Leo X. was likewise an era of very high 
literary splendour ; but of the distinguished writers of that 
period we shall afterwards treat, in a connected view of the 
progress oi literature and the sciences during the sixteenth 
and seventeenth centuries. 



XLIV. ^ 

OF THE OTTOMAN POWER IN TUE SIXTEENTH CENTURY. 

1. From the period of the taking of Constantinople, in the 
middle of the fit'teenth century, the Turks were a great and 
•onquering people. In tlie sixteenth century, Selim 1., after 
>ub(luing Syria and iMesopotamia, undertook the conquest of 
r>gvpt, then governed by the Mamalukes, a race of Circas- 
sians, who had s<Mzed the country in 12o0, and put an end to 
the government of the Arabian princes, the posterity of Sa- 
ladin. The conquest of Kgypk by Selim made little change 
in the form of its government. It professes to own the sove- 
reignty of tiic Turks, but is in reality governed still by the 
Alamaluke Beys. 

2. Solyman (the Magnificent), son of Selim, was, like his 
predecessors, a great conqueror. The i.-land of Rhodes, pos- 
sessed by the Knights of St. John, was a darling object of ^ 
his ambition. These knights had expelled the Saracens from ^ 
the island in lolU. Solyman attacked Rhodes with 110,000 
men -.ivul 400 ships. The lihodian knights, aided by the En- 
glish, Italians, and Spaniards, made a noble defence ; but, af- 
ter a siege of many months, were forced to capitulate, and 
evacuate the island, 1522, which has been the property ol 
the Turks ever since. The commercial laws of the ancient™| 
Uhodians were adopted by the KomanSj and are at \hh day v| 



SVCT. 45. MODERX HISTORV. 251 

the foundation of the maritime jurisprudence of all the na- 
tions of Europe. 

3. Solyman subdued the greatest part of Hungary, Mol- 
davia, and Walachia, and took trom the Persians Georgia and 
Bagdat. His son Sehm 11. took Cyprus from the Venetians 
in 1571. They applied to the Pope for aid, who, together 
with PhiUp II. of Spain, entered into a triple aUiance agiiinst 
I the Ottoman power. An armament of 250 ships of war, 
i commanded by PhiUp's natural brother, Don John of Aus- 
tria, was opposed to 250 Turkish gallies in the gulph of Le- 
panto, near Corinth ; and the Turks were defeated, with the 
loss of 150 ships and 15,000 men, 1571. This great victory 
was soon after followed by the taking of Tunis by the same 
commander. 

4. But these successes were of little consequence. The 
Ottoman power continued extremely formidable. Under 
Amurath II. the Turks made encroachments on Hungary, 
and subdued a part ot Persia. Mahomet HI. though a\ar- 
banan in his private character, supported the dignity of the 
empire, and extended its dominions. The Ottoman power 
declined from his time, and yielded to that of the Persians 
under Schah- Abbas the Great, who wrested from the Turks 
a large part of their late-acquired domiiwons. 



XLV 



STATE OF PERSIA AND THE OTHER ASIATIC KINGDOMS IN THE 
SIXTEENTH AND SEVENTEENTH CENTURIES. 

1. The great empire of Persia, in the end of the fifteenth 
century, underwent a revolution on account of religion. 
Ha>dar or Sophi, a religious enthusiast, established a new 
sect of Mahometans, which held Ali to be the successor of 
3Iahomet instead of Omar, and abolished the pil-rimages to 
Mocca. The Persians eagerly embraced a doctrine which 
distinguished them from their enemies the Turks ; and Isma- 
el, the son of Sophi, following the example of Mahomet en- 
forced his opinioi>s by the sword. He subdued all Persia and 
Armenia, and left this vast empire to his descendants. 

2. Schah-Abbas, surnamed the Great, wa? the great-grand- 
son of Ismael Sophi. He ruled his empire with despotic 
swav, but With most able policy. He regained the provinces 
which had been taken by the Turks, and drove the Portu- 
guese from (iieir settlement of Ormuz. He rebuilt the fallen 



25S' MODERN HI3T0RV. PART, i; 

cities of Persia, and contributed greatly to the introduction 
of arts and civilization. His son Schah-Se&i reigned weakly 
and unfortunately. In his time, Schah-Gean, the Great Mo- 
gul, deprived Persia of Candahar, and the Turks took Bag- 
dat in 1633. From that period the Persian monarchy gradu- 
ally declined. Its sovereigns became the most despicable 
slaves to their own ministers ; and a revolution in the begin- 
ning of the eighteenth century put an end to the dynasty of^ 
the Sophis, and gave the throne to the Afgiian princes, a racej 
of Tartars. 

3. The government of Persia is almost as despotic as that 
of Turkey. The Sovereign draws a small yearly tax from 
every subject, and receives likewise stated gifts on particular 
occasions. The crown is hereditary, witli the exclusion of 
females ; but the sons of a daughter succeed in their room. 
There is no other rank in Persia than that annexed to oHire, 
which is held during the Monarch's pleasure. The national 
religion is the Mahometan, as reformed by Sophi. The sect 
of the Guebres preserve the religion of Zoroaster, as con- 
tained in the Zendavosta and Sadder, (See supra. Part I. 
Sect. XI.) and keep alive the sacred lire. 

4. The poetry of the Persians displays great fancy and 
luxuriance of imagery. The epic poet Firdousi is said to ri- 
val the various merits of Homer and Ariosto ; and the writ- 
ings of Sadi and Hafez, both in prose and poetry, are admir 
ed by all who are conversant in Oriental literature. 

5. Tartarij. — P'rom this vast tract of country sprang those 
rompierors who produced all the great revolutions in Asia. ^ 
The Turks, a race of Tartars, overwhelmed the empire of 
the Caliphs. xMahmoud, a Tartar, conquered Persia and 
great part of ln<lia in the tentl^ century. The Tartar Gengis- 
can subdued India, China, Persia, and Asiatic Russia, in the 
beginning of the thirteenth century. Batoucan, one of \\u 
sons ravaged to the frontiers of Germany. Tamerlane, the 
scourge of the Turks, and con<iueror of a great part of Asia, 
was of the race of Ciengiscan. Barbar, great-grandson ot 
Tamerlane, subdued all between Samarcand and Agra in 
the empire of the Mogul. The descendants of those con- 
querors reign in India, Persia, and China ; but Tartary itsell 

is no more than a vast desert, inhabited by wandering tribes, 
who follow the life of the ancient Scythians. ) 

6. Thibet. — This southern part of Tartary exhibits the 
phenomenon of a Kingdom governed by a living god, the 
Dalai Lama, or Great Lama, whose divinity is acknowledg- 
ed not only by his own subjects, but over China and a ])art of 
India. This god is a. young raan whom the priests educate 



SECT. 46. MODERN HISTORY. 253 

and train to his function, and in whose name they in reahty 
govern the kingdom. 



XLVI. 

HISTORY OF INDIA. 

1. The earliest accounts of this great tract of civilized 
country are those of Herodotus, who lived about a century 
before Alexander the Great ; and it is remarkable that the 
character given of the people by that early writer corres- 
ponds perfectly with that of the modern Hindoos. He had 
probably taken his accounts from fScylax of Cariandria, 
whom Darius Hystaspes had sent to explore the country. — 
But it was not till the age of Alexander that the Greeks had 
any particular knowledge of that extraordinary people. — 
Alexander penetrated into the Penjab, where his troops refu- 
sing to proceed, he embarked on the Hydaspes, which runs 
into the Indus, and thence pursued his course for above 1000 
miles to the ocean. The narrative given by Arrian of this 
expedition was taken from the mouths of Alexander's offi- 
cers ; and its particulars tally yet more remarkably than 
ihose of Herodotus with the modern manners of the Hin- 
doos. 

2. India was visited by Selcucus, to whose share it fell in 
the partition of Alexander's empire ; and Antiochus the 
Great, 200 years afterwards, made a short expedition thith- 
er. It is probable too that some small intercourse subsisted 
between the Greek empire of Bactriana and India ; but till 
the fifteenth century, no European power thought of forming 
any estabhshment in that country ; though, from the age of 
Alexander down to the period of the Portuguese discoveries, 
there had constantly been some commercial intercourse be- 
tween Europe and India, both by sea and across the desert. 

3. The Mahometans, as early as A. D. 1000, had begun to 
establish an empire in India. Mahmoud, a Tartar, conquer- 
ed a great part of the country, and established his capital at 
Gliazna, near the sources of the Indus, extirpating, wherever 
he came, the Hindoo religion, and establishing the Mahome- 
tan in its stead. Mohammed Gori, in 1194, penetrated to 
Benares, and one of his successors fixed the seat of his em- 
pire at Delhy, which has continued to be the capital of the 
Mogul princes. The sovereignty founded by Mahmoud was 
overwhelmed in 1^22 by Gengiscan^ as was his empire in the 



254 MODERN HISTOEV. PART II. 

following century by Tamerlane, whose posterity are at this 
day on the throne of the Mogul empire. 

4. The Mogul empire was, even in the beginning of the 
18th century, the most powerful and flourishing of all the 
Asiatic monarchies, under Aurengzebe, the son of Schah- 
Gean, who, though a monster of cruelty, and most despotic 
tyrant, enjoyed a life prolonged to an hundred years, crown- 
ed with uninterrupted prosperity and success. He extend- 
ed his empire over the whole peninsula of India within the 
Ganges. 

5. The dominion of the Mogul was not absolute over all 
the countries which composed his empire. Tamerlane al- 
lowed the petty princes, Rajahs or Nabobs, to retain their ter- 
ritories, of which their descendants are at this day in posses- 
sion. They paid a tribute to the Great Mogul, as an ac- 
knowledgment of his sovereignty, and observed the treaties 
agreed to by their ancestors ; but they were in other respects 
independent princes. 

6. Bengal became a part of the Mogul's empire by con- 
quest in the end of the sixteenth century, and was common- 
ly governed L/ a son of the Great Mogul, who had under 
him several inferior Nabobs, the former princes of the coun- 
try. Such was its condition when the British East-India 
Company, between 175.1 and 1760, conquered and obtained 
possession of that kingdom, together with Bahar and pilrt of 
Orissa, a large, populous, and most flourishing country, con- 
taining above ten miUions of inhabitants, and producing an 
immense revenue ; and these territories have since that peri- ' 
od received a considerable addition. The East-India Com- 
pany thence has the benefit of the whole, commerce of the 
Mogul empire, with Arabia, Persia, and Thibet, as well as 
with the kingdoms of Azeni, Aracan, Pegu, Siam, Malacca, 
China, and many of the oriental islands. 

The fixed establishments of the British in the country of 
Ihdostan have, afforded opportunity of obtaining much in- 
structive knowledge relative to the ancient state of that- 
country, of which we shall give a short sketch in the follow- 
ing section. 



SECT. 47. MODERN HISTORY. 255 

XLVII. 

ANCIENT STATE OF INDIA ; MANNERS, LAWS, ARTS AND SCI- 
ENCES, AND RELIGION OF THE HINDOOS. 

1. The remains of the ancient knowledge of the Hindoos 
have been preserved by a hereditary priesthood, in the Sans- 
creet language, long since extinct, and only known to a few 
of the Bramins. The zeal of some learned Europeans has 
lately opened that source of information, whence we learn 
the most interesting particulars of this extraordinary people, 
perhaps the most early cultivators of the sciences, and the 
instructors of all the nations of antiquity. We shall briefly 
notice their singular division into casts, their civil policy, 
their laws, their progress in the arts and sciences, and their 
religion. 

2. The whole body of the people was divided into four or- 
ders or casts. The highest, that of the Bramins, was devo- 
ted to religion and the cultivation of the sciences : to the 
second belonged the preservation of the state ; they were its 
sovereigns and its magistrates in peace, and its soldiers in 
war : the third were the husbandmen and merchants : and the 
fourth the arti6ans,labourers,and servants. These are insep- 
arable distinctions, and descend from generation to genera- 
tion. Moreover, the individuals of each class follow invaria- 
bly the professions of their forefathers. Every man, from his 
birth, knows the function allotted to him, and fulfils with ease 
and satisfaction the duty which he cannot avoid. Hence ari- 
ses that permanence of manners and institutions which so sin- 
gularly characterises this ancient nation. 

3. This classification is an artificial arrangement, which 
I could have originated only from the mind of a legislator 

among a polished people, completely obedient to govern- 
juent. It is therefore a proof of the highly civilised state of 
the Hindoo nation in the most remote periods of antiquity. 

4. The civil policy of the Hindoos is another proof of the 
same fact. At the time of Alexander the Great, India was 
divided into large and powerful kingdoms, governed by 
Sovereigns whose dominion was not absolute, but controlled 
by the superior authority of the Bramins. A S3^stem of feu- 
dalism has ever prevailed in India ; the rights to lands flow 
from the Sovereign, to whom a certain duty is payable by 
the class of the husbandmen, who transmit their possessions 
to their children under the same tenure. Strabo and Diodo- 
rus remarked among the Indians three classes of officers ; 
one whose department was the regulation of agriculture, 



256 MODERN HISTORY. FART II. 

tanks, highways ; another which superintended the pohce of 
the cities ; a third which rcguUited the mihtary department. ^ 
The SMne policy prevails at this day under the Hindoo prin- 
ces. 

6. The jurisprudence of Hindostan is an additional proof 
of great antiquity and civilization. The Ayen-Akbery, and 
still more the compilation of Hindoo laws from the ancient 
Sanscreet records, made by order of Mr. Hastings, contain 
the jurisprudence of a refined and commercial people, among 
whom law itself had been a study and profession. 

6. Many monuments ex\^t in India of the advanced state 
of the useful and elegant arts in tlie remotest periods of an- 
tiquity. The ancient Pagodas, of vast extent and magnifi- 
cence, whether cut in the solid rock, as in Elephanta and 
Salsette, or in the open air, as at C'hillambrum and Sering- 
ham, the sumptuous residences of the Bramins ; and the an- 
cient hill fortresses, constructed witli prodigious strength and 
«?ohdity, evince a great advancement in the arts : ;is the re- 
sort of the mojit polished natiorjs of antiquity to that country 
for cotton cloths, tine linen, and works in metal and in ivory, 
proves the superior state of those manufactures to all known 
at that time in Europe. 

7. Tiie late translations from the Sanscreet of several in- 
genious compositions of high antiquity, as the dramatic 
piece Sacontala, the Ilitopadesa, a series of moral apologues 
and fables, the Alahabaraf, an epic poem, composed above ' 
200U years before the Christian er€i^ all concur in proof of a 
similar advancement in literature ; and we have reason to be- 
lieve, from siirb works as are of a philo.'^ophical nature, that 
there is scarce a tenet of the Greek philosophy that has not 
been antecedently the subject of discussion among the Bra- 
mins of India. 

8. The numeral cyphers, first introduced into Europe by 
tlie Arabi.ins. were, as confessed by tliose authors themselves, 
borrowed from the Indians. It is above a century since tbc 
French philosophers evinced, by the evidence of a Siamese 
manuscript, containing tables for calculating the places of the j 
heavenly bodies, the astonishing advancement made by tbis i 
ancient poopla in the science of astronomy. A set of tables i 
obtained lately from the Bramins by M. Gentil, goes back to j 
an era termed CalyougJiam^ commencing 3102 years before * 
the birth of Christ. These tables are used by the modern ! 
Bramins, who are quite ignorant of the principles on which 
they have been constructed, and which M. Bailly has shown 
to be the same employed by the moderns, but with which the 
Greeks and Chaldeans were utterly unacquainted. 



SECT. 48. MODERN HISTORV. 557 

9. Lastly, From the religious opinion* and worsliip of the 
Hindoos we mirst draw the same conclusion as from ail the 
preceding facts. One uniform system of superstition per- 
vades every religion of India, which is supported b^^ the most 
saijacious policy, and every thing that cm excite the venera- 
tion of its votaries. The Bramins, elevated above every 
other class of men, and exclusively acquainted with the mys- 
teries of that religion," which it is held impious for any other 
class to attempt to penetrate ; the implicit reliance on the 
authority of these Bramins ; the ceremonies of their worship, 
fitted to impress the imagination, and afi'ectthe passions ; all 
concurred to fortify this potent superstition, and to give its 
priests a supreme ascendency over the minds of the people- 
But those priests themselves, enlightened its they were, re- 
jected that false theology. Their writings demonstrate that 
they entertained the most rational and elevated conceptions 
with regard to the Supreme Being, and the support of the 
universe. 

10. On the whole, there is a high probability that India 
was the great school from which the most early polished na- 
tions of Europe derived their knowledge of the arts, of sci- 
■ ences, and of literature. 



XLVIII. 

OF CHINA AND JAPAN. 

i . Proceeding eastward in the survey of the Asiatic con 
tment, the great em})ire of China next solicits our attention. 
In the end of the tenth century, China, Persia, and the great- 
est part of India, were ruled by the Tartar descendants of 
Gengiscan. The Tartar family of Yven, who conquered 
China, made no change in its laws and system of govern- 
ment, which had been permanent from time immemorial. — 
Of this family there reigned nine successive monarchs, with- 
out any attempts by the Chinese to throw off the Tartar yoke. 
The odious aud contemptible character of the last of these 
Sovereigns at length excited a rebelhon, which, in 1357, 
drove the Tartars from the throne ; and the Chinese, for 276 
years, obeyed their native princes. At that period a second 
revolution gave the throne once more to the Tartars. Tak- 
ing advantage of an insurrection in one of the provinces, they 
invaded China in 1G41, and made an easy conquest. The 
Kmperor shut himself up in his palace, and, aller putting to 

23 



Jab rOUERN IHMCKV. FART JI. 

dcalli all his fumiiy, finished the scene bv hani^in^ himself. 
The same Tartars occupy the throne of China at this dwy. 
md observe the same wise policy of maintaining inviolate 
tlie Chinese laws, policy, and manners. Of these we shall 
give a brief account in the subsequent section. 

2. The empire of Japan was discovered by the Portuguese 
about the middle of the sixteenth century. The open and 
unsuspicious cliaracter of this industrious and polished peo- 
ple led them to encourage the resort of foreigners to their 
()orts ; and the Spaniards, after th«y liad obtained the sove- 
reignty of Portugal, carried on a most benelicial trade to the 
'oasts of Japan. The Emperor zealously promoted this in- 
tercourse, till the insatiable ambition of the Spaniards gave 
iiim alarming conviction of its danger. Under the pretence 
of converting the Japanese Irom idolatry, a vast number ol 
priests were sent into the country, and one half of the peo- 
ple were speedily set at mortal variance with the other. It 
now became necessary to prohibit this work of conversion by 
an impexial edict. Still, however, a free trade was allowed, 
till l!>37, when a con-^piracy of the Spaniards was discovered 
for dethroning the Emperor and seizing the government. An 
edict was is:3ued ior the expulsion of ail the Spaniards and 
Portuguese, who were mad enough to resist, till overpowered 
by force of arms. Since that period all the European na- 
tions have been excluded from the ports of Japan. TIk 
Dutch only, who had l)een the discoverers of the conspirac;. 
of the Spaniards, are allowed the privilege of landing 0!i oii< 
of the small islands, fur the purposes of trade, afier makiiv 
oiith lisat tliey are not of the Portuguese religion. 



XLIX. j 

OF THE ANTiqtITV OF THE EMPIRE OF CHINA. STATE Oh IIU. 
ARTS AND SCIEN'CES, MANNERS, GOVERNMENT, LAWS. 

1. The antiquity of this vast empire, and the state of iu j 
government, laws, manners, and attainments in the arts and ! 
sciences, have furnished a most ample held of controversy. 
Voltaire, Raynal, andother writers of similar principles, have. | 
for the purpose of discrediting the scriptural account of the 
origin of mankind, and the received notions of the age of tip 
universe, given to the Chinese empire an immense antiquity . 
and a character of such high civilization and knowledge ol 
the sciences and arts at that remote period, as to be utterly 

4 



SE6T. 49. MODERN KISTOIIY. 259 

irrcconcileable with the state and progress of man as describ- 
ed in the books of Moses. On the other hand, it is probable 
that the desire of invaUdating those opinions has induced oth- 
er writers of ability to go to an opposite extreme ; to under- 
value this singular people, and to Jd;ive too little weight to any 
accounts which we have, either of the duration of their em- 
pire, the economy of tlieir government and pohce, or oltheir 
attainments in the arts and sciences. Amidst this contrariety 
of sentiments, we shall endeavour to form such opinion as 
appears most consonant to the truth. 

2. The panegyrists of the Chinese assert that their empire 
has subsisted above 4000 yean*, without any material altera- 
tion in its laws, manners, language, or even fashion of dress ; 
in evidence of which they appeal to a series of echpses, mark- 
ing contemporary events, all accurately calculated, for 2155 
years before the birth of Christ. As it is easy to calculate 
eclipses backwards from the present day to any given period 
of time, it is thus possible to give a history, fictitious from 
beginningto end, its chronology of real echpses. This proof, 
therefore, amounts to nothing, unless it were likewise proved 
that all those eclipses were actually recorded at the time 
when they happened ; but this neither has been nor can be 
done ; for it is an allowed fact that there are no regular his- 
torical records beyond the third century before the Christian 
era. The present Chinese are utterly ignorant of the mo- 
tions of the celestial bodies, and cannot calculate eclipses. 
The series mentioned has therefore in all probability been 
calculated by some of the Jesuits, to ingratiate themselves 
with the Emperors, and flatter the national vanity. The Je- 
suits have presided in the tribunal of mathematics for above 
200 years. 

3. But if the authentic annals of this empire go back even 
to the third century before Christ, and record at that time a 
high state of civilization, we must allow that the Chinese are 
an ancient and early polished people, and that they have pos- 
ses>ed a singular constancy in their government,' laws, and 
manners. Sir William Jones, no bigotted enromiai*t of this 
people, allows their greiK antiquity and early civilization, and, 
with much apparent probability, traces their origin fromtho 
Hindoos. Me appeals to the ancient Sanscreet records, 
which mention a migration from India of certain of the mili- 
tary class termed Chinas to the countries east from Bengal. 
The stationary condition of the arts and sciences in China 
proves that these have not originated with that people ; and 
many peculiarities of the manners, in%titvitions, and wopuhir 



200 MODERN IIISTORV. PART li. 

religion of the Chiaese, have a near affinity witli those of the 
Hindoos. 

4. The government of China is that of an absolute mo- 
narchy. The patriarchal system pervades the whole, and 
binds all the members of tbi? vast empire in ihe strictest sub- 
ordination. Every father is abgolnte in his family, and 
may inflict any pimishment short of death npon his children. 
The mandarin of the district is absolute, with the power of 
life and death over all its members ; but a capital sentence 
cannot be inflicted u ithout the Km[teror's approbation. The 
Emperor's power is absolute over all the niandnrins, and eve- 
ry subject of the empire. To reconcile the people to this 
tlej-poiic authority, the Sovereign alone is entitled to relieve 
tlje wanu? of the poor, and to compensate public calamities;, 
.s well as the misfortunes of individuals, lie is therefore 
I as tlie father of his peojde, and even adored as a 
;.,. ,.v ,.,;out divinity. 

£>. Another circumstance which conciliates the people to 
their jrovernment is, that all honours in China are conferred 
iccordins; to merit, and that chietly literary. The civil man- 
darins, Avho are the magistrates and judges, arc appointed to 
oOicc according to their measure of knowledge and mental 
»»ridowments. No office or rank is hereditary, but may be 
;i<ipircd to by the meanest of the people. The penal laws of 
<^iiina are remarkably severe, but their execution may be re- 
uiiited by the Emperor. The judicial tribunals are regulated 
tV a body of written laws of great antifpiity, and founded on 
liic basii of universal justice and equity- The EmperorV 
.((jhiion rarely dilTcrs from the sentences of those courts. On« 
nilMinal judges of the quulitif'ations of the mandarins ; ano- 
Iher regulates the morals of thq people, and the national man- 
ners ; a thlid is the tribunal of censors, whirh reviews the 
laws, the conduct of the magistrates and judges, and even 
.hat of the Emperor himselt". These tribunals are tilled by 
yn equal nuniber of Chinese and Tartars. 

G. It his been observed, that the'sciences have been gtn- 
iionar\ in this empire for many ages ; and they are at this da; 
extremely low, though fir beyond the attainments of a bar- 
barous people. The language of China seems to oppose the 
prosecution of speculative researches. It has no regular in- 
jections, and can with diflu ulfy express abstract ideas. We 
have remarked the ignorance of the Chinese in mathematics 
and astronomy. Of physics they have no acquaintance be- ' 
yond the knowledge; of apparent facts. They never ascen-^ 
to principles or forn; theories. Their knowledge of r.iedi 
ciae is extremely limited, and is blcndtJ v, uh the most con 



Sa€T'. 4*J. MCtJEAN HlSTORV. <s!c 1^ 

lemptible superstition. Of anp.tomy, thoy iinow next lo no- 
thing ; and in surgery they have never vcniurcd to amputate 
a limb, or to reduce a fracture. 

7. The state of the useful and elegant arts has been equally 
stationary as that of the sciences. They have attained many 
ages ago to a certain point of advancement, which they have 
never gone beyond. The Chinese are said to have manu- 
lactured glass for 2000 years, yet at this day it is inferior in 
transparency to the European, and is not used in their win- 
dows. Gunpowder they are reported to have known from 
time immemorial, but they never employed it in artillery or 
fire-arms till taught by the Europeans. Printing they are 
said to have invented in the age of Julius C'dcsar ; yet they 
know not the use of moveable types, but print from blocks 
of wood. When hrst shewn the use of the compass in sail- 
ing, they affirmed that they were well acquainted with it, 
but found no occasion to employ it. The art of painting in 
China is mere mechanical imitation, without grace, expreS' 
sion, or even accuracy of proportions. Of the rules of per- 
spective they have not the smallest idea. In sculpture, as 
in the figures of tbeir idols, the Chinese artists seem to de- 
light in distortion and deformity. Their music is not regu 
lated by any principles of science : they have no semi-tones , 
and their instruments are imperfect and untunable. The 
Chinese architecture has variety, lightness, and sometime* 
elegance, but has no grandeur or symmetrical beauty. 

8. Yet, in some of the aits, the Chinese have attained to 
great perfection. Agriculture is carried in China to the high- 
est pitch of improvement. There is not a spot of waste land 
in the whole empire, nor any which is not highly cultivated. 
The Emperor himself is the chief of the husbandmen, and 
annually holds the ploiigh with his own hands. Hence, and 
from the modes of econoini.-:ing food, is supported the asto- 
nishing population of 333 millions, or 2(jO inhabitants to ere- 
ry square mile of the empire. The gardening of the Chi- 
nese, and tiieir admirable embellishment of rural nature, have 
of late been the object of imitation in Europe, but with far 
inferior success. The manufacture of porcelain is an origin- 
al invention of this people ; and the Europeans, though ex- 
ceUing them in the form and ornameat of the utensils, have 
never been able to attain to the excellence of the material. 

9. The morals of the Chinese have furnished much sub- 
ject both of encomium and censure. The books of Confu- 
cius arqsnid to contain a most admirable system of morality ; 
but the principles of morals have their foundntion in human 
nature, and must, in theory, be every where the same. Tho 

23* 



262 MODERN HISTORY tART II. 

moral virtues of a people are not to be eatimatod from the 
booli? of their philosophers. It is i»robablc th.it the mtnnera 
of the superior classes are in China, as elsewhere, much in- 
fluenced by etlucaLion and example. The morals of the low- 
er classes are said lo be beyond measure loose, and tlieir 
practices most dishonest ; nor are they regulated by any 
principle but seltish interest, or restrained but by the fear 
of punishment. 

10. The religion of the Chinese is different in the differ- 
ent ranks of society. There is no religiuii of the state. 
The Emperor and the higher mandarins profess the belief 
of one Supreme Being, Changti, whom they worshij) by 
prayer and thanksgiving, without any mixture of idolatrous 
practices. They respect tlie Lama of Tiiibet as the high- 
priest or prophet of this religion. A prevalent sect is that 
of Tao-sse, who beheve in the power of magic, the agen- 
cy of spirits, and the divining of future events. A third is 
the sect of /b, derived li om India, whose priests are the Bon- 
zes, and whose fundamental doctrine is, that all thing>i rose 
out of nothing, and tinally must return to it ; that all animals 
are first to undergo a series of transmigrations ; and that as 
man's chief happiness is to approach as near as possible to a 
state of annihilation in this life, absolute idleness is more lau- 
dable thari orcujtatiori of any kind. A variety of hideous 
jdols are worshipped by this sect. 

1 1 . The Chinese have their sacred books, termed h'inc^s ; 
its the yking^ (houking, kc. ; which, amidst some good mo- 
ral precepts, contain much mystery, childish superstition, 
und ab^^urditv. These are chielly resorted to for the divin- 
.ng of future events, which seeius the ultiinatum of research 
among the Chinese philosophers. The observation of the 
heavenly bodies is made for that purpose alone : the changes 
of weather, the performance or omission of certain ceremo- 
nies, the occurrence of certain events in particular times and 
plares, are all believed to have their intluenre on futurity, 
and are therefore carefully observed and recorded ; and the 
rules by which those omens are interpreted are said to have 
been prescribed by the great Confurius, the father of the 
Chinese philosophy, 6U0 years before the Christian era. 

12. VV^e conclude, on the whole, that the Chinese are a 
Tery remarkable people ; that their government, l.iws, ppli- 
cy, and knowledge of the arts and sciences, exhil)it unques- 
tionable proofs of great antiquity and early civilization ; but 
;hat the extraordinary measure of duration assigncd^to tlieir 
empire by some modern writers rests on no solid proofs ; 
nor arc their government, laws, munBCrs. arts, or scientific 



SECT. 50. MODERN HISTORY. 263 

attainments, at all deserving of that superlative and most ex- 
aggerated encomium which has been bestowed on them. 



L. 

M. bailly's theory of the origin of the sciences among 

THE NATIONS OF ASIA. 

1. The striking resemblance in many points of character 
between the Chinese and ancient Egyptians has led to the 
conjecture, either that they were originally the same people, 
the one being a colony of the other, or that the two nations 
have had at some remote period such intercourse, either bj*^ 
conquest or in the way of commerce, as to occasion a reci- 
procal communication of manners, arts, and knowledge of 
the sciences. M. de Mairan has remarked the following 
points of similarity. The Egyptians and Chinese had the 
same permanence of manners, and abhorrence of innova- 
tions'; they were alike remarkable for the respect entertain- 
ed by children to their parents ; they were equally averse 
to war ; they had the same general but superlicial know- 
ledge in the arts and sciences, without the ability to make 
great attainments ; they both, in the most ancient times, us- 
ed hieroglyphics ; the Egyptians had u solemn festival, call- 
ed the Feast of the Lights ; the Chinese have the Feast of 
the Lanterns ; the features of the Chinese are said to resem- 
ble the ancient Egyptian statues ; certain characters engrav- 
en on an Egyptian bust of Isis were found to belong to the 
Chinese language. 

2. M. Bailly has taken a wider range of observations, and 
has, from a review of the manners, customs, opinions, and 
attainments of the Indians, Persians, Chinese, Ch;ddaeans, 
and Egyptians, discovered many circumstances of similarity 
between all those nations equally remarkable as the forego- 
ing. He has thence formed the singular hypothesis, that the 
knowledge common to th^ whole of those nations has been 
derived from the same original source, namely, a most an- 
cient and highly cultivated people of Asia, of whose memo- 
ry every trace is now extinct, but who have been the parent 
instructors of all around them. If we find, says he, in the 
scattered huts of peasants, fragments interspersed of sculp- 
tured columns, we conclude for certain that these are not 
the work of the rude peasants who reared those huts, but 
that they are the remains of a mcigniticeot building, the work 



264 MODEAtr HISTOAY. PART II, 

of able architects, though we tliscover no other traces of the 
existence of that building, and cannot ascertain its precise 
situation. 

3. The sciences and arts of the Chinese have been station- 
ary for 2000 years. The people seem never to have avail- 
ed themselves of tlie hghts of their ancestors. They are 
like the inhabitants of a country recently discovered by a po- 
lished people, who have taught them some of their arts, and 
left their instruments among them. The knowledge they 
possess seems to have been imported, and not of original 
growth, for it has never been progressive. 

4. The Chaldasans were an enlightened people lit the com- 
mencement of the Babylonish empire, 2000 years before the 
Christian era. — They were great astronomers, and under- 
stood the revolutions of comets, which became known to 
the moderns only in the sixteenth century. The Chaldaeans 
were probably the remains of this ancient people. The 
Bramins of India believe in the unity of (jod and the immor- 
tality of the soul, but with these sublime tenets they inter- 
mix the most childish absurdities. They derived the for- 
mer from wise instructors, the latter were the fruit of their 
own ignorance. The Sanscreet, a most copious and elegant 
language, and the vehicle of all the Indian knowledge and 
philosophy, has been a dead tongue for thousands of years, 
£nd is intelligible only to a few of those Bramins. It was 
probably the language of that great ancient people. 

5. The coincidence or similarity of customs concurs to 
establish the same idea. The custom of libation was com- 
EJon to the Tartars and Chinese, as well as to the Greeks 
r<nd Romans. All the Asiatic nations had festivals of the 
niiture of the Roman Saturnalia. The tradition of the de- 
luge is diffused among all those nations : the tradition of the 
giants attacking heaven is equally general. The doctrine of 
the metempsychosis was common to the Egyptians, Greeks, 
Indians, Persians, Tartarians, and Chinese. The religion of 
all these nations is founded on the profound, though errone- 
ous, doctrine of the two principles, an universal soul pervad- 
ing all nature, and inert matter on which it acts. A contbrm- 
jty in a true doctrine is no proof of mutual communication 
or concert ; but it is ingeniously remarked, that a conformi- 
ty in a false doctrine comes very near to such a proof. 

6. The Egyptians, Chaldaians, Indians, Persians, and Chi- 
nese, all placed their temples fronting the e.ist, to receive the 
first rays of the sun. The worship of the sun has been the 
religion of that ancient people. All the above mentioned 
Qations had a cycle, or period of sixty years, for regulating 



SECT. 50. M.ODERN HISTORY. 



>^ 



their chronology ; the}'^ all divided the circle into 360 de- 
g;rees, the zodiac into twelve signs, and the week into seven 
days ; and the Chinese, Indians, and Egyptians designed 
those days by tlie names of the planets ranged in the same 
order. The long measures of the ancient nations had all one 
common origin. 

7. These singular coincidences, argues M. Bailly, can be 
accounted for only by three suppositions : 1. That there was 
a free communication between all those ancient nations : 
2. That those circumstances of coincidence are so founded 
in human nature, that the most unconnected nations could 
not fail to hit upon them : or, 3. That they have been all 
derived from a common source. He rejects the two for- 
mer suppositions, as contrary in his opinion to fact, and rests 
of course upon the last. 

8. The precise situation of this great ancient people M. 
Bailly does not pretend to fix with certainty ; but he otfers 
probable reasons for conjecturing that it was about the 49th 
or 60th degree of north latitude, in the southern regions of 
Siberia. Many of the European and Asieitic nations attribute 
their origin to that quarter, which thence appears to have 
been extremely populous. Nitre, a production from animal 
substances, is more abundant there than in any other region. 
The observations of the rising of the stars, collected by Pto- 
lemy, must have been made in a climate where the longest 
day was sixteen hours, which corresponds to the latitude 
mentioned. No European nation in that latitude understood 
astronomy in those early periods. The veneration of the 
Indians and Chinese for the Lama of Thibet is a proof that 
the religion of those nations originated in that quarter. 

9. But does that region exhibit any traces of having been 
ever inhabited by a polished people ? It is here that the theo- 
ry of M. Bailly seems to be least supported by proof. He 
observes that ancient mines have been discovered in those 
parts of Siberia, which have been wrought to great extent in 
a period beyond all record or tradition ; that ancient sepul- 
chres have been found, in which there were ornaments of 
gold of skilful workmanship ; but the facts specified are so few 
as to warrant no positive inference. 

10. This theory is an amusing specimen of the authors 
ingenuity ; but it has not the force to draw our assent to his 
conclusions. We have noticed it, as specifying many curious 
facts relative to the manners and attainments of the ancient 
nations, and as furnishing strong evidence of the common 
origin of mankind. The nations above mentioned, thougii 
many of them remote from each other, were all connected as 



2o6 MODtRN IIISTORV. « PART 11- 

link? of a chain, by proximity ; whence it is easy to concplvc 
that knonledi^e should divorge from u centre to a very dis- 
tant circumference. M. Bailly has pven no reasonabU' 
ijrouads for fjxin:^ that centre in the position lie has assigned 
It. 



LI. 



REIGN OF I'HlIir II. OF SPAl.V. RL70LUT10X OF THE ^tETO- 

FRLANDS, AXD ESTABI.IbllMKNT OF *T!IE REilBI.U OK IIOI - 
LAKD. 

1. After a sliort "^tirvoy of the Asiatic kin!t;clom«, avo re- 
turn to tlie history of Europe in the sixteentli century. 

In the time of Fhihp II., the successor of Charles V'., the 
balance of p«nver in Kurojje was sustained hy h^pain, FVance. 
England, and Germany, all at tl)i« time highly tlourishiug and 
respectable, either from the talents of their Sovereigns, or 
their internal strength. Eli/.r.bcth, Hrnry IV., and Philip 
II., were all acute and able politicians, tliough the policy of 
the last partook more of selHsh craft, and had less of the 
manly and heroic, than that of either of hi? rival monarchs. 
Phibpwas at this lime Sovereign of Spain, the Two Sicilies, 
Milan, and tlie Netherlandf. He had likewise, for a few 
years, the power of Env;;lan<l at hi« rommand, by his mar- 
riat^e with Mary, the elder s»ister and predecessor of Ehza- 
belh. 

'2. Pope Paul IV.. jealous of the power of Philip, formed 

-1 alliance with Henry II. of France to deprive the Span- 

.;r(is of Alilan and tho Sicilies. Philip, with l)>e aid of the 

English, defeated the Frenrh at St. Huintin in Pirardy, and 

hoped, from this <ii;nal \i(tory, to force the all^#s into a 

-.-seace ; but tiie I>uke of Guise recovered the spirits of the 

rench hy the takinsc of Calais from the English, which they 

»iad now'po-*e**ed for 200 years. Another great victory, 

however, ubtained hy Philip »ear Gravehnes, biouuht on tlie 

reaty of Chatteau-Cambresis, in 1559, by which the French 

aurrendered to Spain no less than eighty-nine foriiticd town's 

rS the Low Countries and in Italy. 

3. Philip, now at ease from foreign disturbances, began to 
be disquieted on the «:core uf religion. An intoleBMt higot 
by nature, he resolved to extirpate every species^beresy 
from his dominions. The Netherlands, an asseTOlage ol 
trparate 8*aie?, were all subject to Philip, under various ti- 



Sr.CT. ol. MODERN HISTOr.Y. 0G7 

Jcs ; and he bad conferred the government of Ilollniul, Zeal- 
and, Frie^land, and Utrecht, on WiHiinn i^rincc of Oran"T a 
Count of the German Empire. The Lutheran and Calvani's- 
tic opinions had made great progre*? in those (juarters ; and 
Philip, determining to repress them, est;'blished the Inquisi- 
tion with plenary powers, created new bishops, and prepared 
to abrogate the ancient hiws, and give the provinces a new 
political institution. These innovations creating alarm and 
tumult, the Duke of Alva was sent into Flanders to enforce 
implicit submission. 

4. The Inquisition began its blood}' work, and many of 
the principal nobility of the provinces were its victims. The 
minds of the people were completely alitMiated, and a chief 
was only wanting to give union to their measures. The 
Prince of Orange, who was himself under sentence of the 
Inquisition, found no difficulty to raise an army, and having 
easily reduced some of the most important garrisons, he was 
proclaimed Stadtholder of Holland and Zealand in 1570. 
Eighteen thousand persons perished by the hands of the ex- 
ecutioner in the course of the Duke of Alva's government, 
which was of five years' dnration. His place was ^upplied 
by Requesens, a man of humanity, but bound to obey his 
inhuman master, who, on the death of Kequcsens, sent his 
brother Don John of Austria to endeavoiir to reg:un the re- 
volted states : but the attempt was fruitless. The whole 
seventeen provinces had sufl'ered alike from the lyrafmv of 
their Sovereign, but parti<ular jealousies prevented a general 
union, and only seven of these a.sserted their independence 
by a solemn treaty formed at l'tro( ht, '2:h\ .Tamiarv, rfiTD • 
by which it was agreed tiiat the^ -hould defctid iheir liber- 
ties as one united republic ; that ttiey should jointiv deter- 
mine in matters of peace and war, establish a general* legisla- 
tive authority, a»d-maintam a lil)erty of cou^ience in maf- 
tcrs of religion. These seven United Provinces are, Guel- 
derland, Holland, Zealand. Frieslandy Utrecht, Ove'ryssel, 
and Groni'igen. William Prince of Orange was declared 
their chief magistrate, general, and admiral, bv the title of 
Stadthohhr. 

b. Phihp vented his indignation by a proscription oi the 
Prince of Orange, olTering 25,()(>u crowns for his head, au<l 
he compaisod his revenge, for this illustrioi.s man was cut 
off l)y an a-siissin, 15C4. His son Maurice was electe! Stadt- 
holder in Ills room, jmd sustaine«l his imprrt.int part with 
great <y>Mi id ability. With a slender aid from Eliza- 

beth of i:u.^..,..i, who delighted to tr^verio the plans of Phd- 
ip, this inf'Di commonwealth accomplished and secured ii^ 



208 MODERN IITSTORV. PART U. 

independence, which it has mainUiined, till its disgrarclul 
subjugation in the present times, the miserable fruit of faction 
and political disunion. 

G. The other ten provinces, whose discontents were ex- 
pressed only by murmur and complaint, were soothed by a 
new charter from Phihp, confirming their privileges ; while 
at the same time he took every possible measure to prevent 
any attempt on their part to throw off the yoke. 



Lll. 



OF THE CONSTITUTION AND GOVERNMENT OF THE INITi 

PROVINCES. 

1. The treaty of confederation of the Seven United Pro\ 
inces, framed in 1579, and solemnly renewed in 158.3, it* de- 
clared to be, by its nature, indissoluble. Each province 
thereby preserved its own laws, its magistrates, its sovereign- 
ty, and its independence. They form, however, one body 
politic, having renounced the right of making separate allian- 
ces antl treaties, and established a general council, with p<nv- 
vr of assembling the states and reg\dating tlie common allai 
of the r^^public. The assom))Iy of th« States-General w,i- 
originally held only twice a year, but beciune afterwards ;i 
j)erpetual council. 

2. In all matters which regard not tlie general interest of 
the nation, each of the states or provinces is in itsclfa repub- 
lic, governed by its own law* aiid magistrates, and possess- 
iiig a supreme legislative authority. The deputies from each 
of the towns ibrui the con<,r j) ..f ili^ province, in which is 
vested its separate govern md iluse deputies are regu- 
lated by tlic iffstructions ol thtir constituents. The votes of 
the majority of deputies decide in the provincial council'in 
all matters which regard not the general interest of the na- 
tion. 

'3. Tiie great council of the States-General, always met in 
assembly at the Hague, is composed of the deputies from the 
Seven Provinces, of which Hollind sends three, Zealand and 
Utrecht two, and the others one ; each deputy being regu- 
lated by the council of his province. A majority of voices is 
here decisive, unless in the great questions of peace, war, and 
alliance, in which unanimity is rerjuisite. The disadvantage* 
of this constitution is the delay and difliculty in the execu- 
tion of pubhc mejisures. All the towns and all the nobles of 



^1.. i. mobehn history. iioS^ 

a province muift deliberate, and instruct their deputy, before 
the States-General can take the matter under consideration. 
This iiTPat defect is in some measure corrected by the pow- 
er and influence of the Sladtholder. 

4. The Stndtholder is commander in chief of the sea and 
land forces, and disposer of all the military employments, 
lie presides over all the courts of justice, and has the power 
of pardoning crimes. He appoints the magistrates of the 
towns from a list made by themselves : receives and names 
ambassadors, and is ciiarged \vith the execution of the laws. 
1 (e is supreme arbiter in all dilfercnces between the provin- 
' r;s, rities, or other members of the state. 

5. William, the lirst Stadtholiler, did not abuse these high 
powers ; nor did bis successors, Maurice and IJenry Fred- 
' tick. But vnder William 11. the slates became jealous of 
an exorbitant authority in their chief mngistrate, and on his 
dentil the office was for some time abolished. In that inter- 
val the republic wi\s almost annihilated by the arms of Louis 
y\V. ; and, sensible of their error, they re?(o:ed the office of 

ladthulder in the person of William III. who retrieved the 
Ttunes and honour of his country. In gratitude for his ser- 
iices, the di<:;nity was made hereditary in his family, a solc- 
ci-^m in the go\('rnment of a republic. On the death of 
William without issue, the office was once more abolished 
for twenty years, when it was ag:un restore 1, declared he- 
reditary in tbe fiinily of Orange, and descendible even to the 
i -sue of a daughter. The only restrictions are, that the suc- 
ceeding Prince shall be of the Protcstf.nt religion, and nei- 
ther King nor Elector of the German empire. 



LIII. 



Ri:fG\ OF PITH. IF' ir. continued. 

1. The loss of the Netherlands was in some dc'^ree com- 
pensi\led to Philip II. by the acquisition of the kingdom of 
' Portugal. Muley Mahomet, King of Fez and Morocco, de- 
. throned by his uncle Muley Miduc, solicited the aid of Don 
r Sebastian King of Portugal to regain his throne. Sebaatian 
landed with an army in Africa, hut was defeated by ihc 
Moors, and slain ; and the contending Moorish princes per- 
ished in the same engagement. Sebastian was succeeded 
by his grand-inicle Don Henry, who died afler a reign o two 
ycai> The competitors for the crown were Don Autonio 

2\ 



f70 MODERN iirsTony. pari i, 

Tiior ofCrato, and Philip 11., paternal and maternal nnclos i> 
the lait sovereign. PhiHj) doleatcd his rival in n decii«ive rn- 
ur/'-ment at «e;«. and, wlJioiit I'tirlher opposition, took pus- 
-r- loii ot' Llio throne of IV.rltii;al, IjCU. 

?. Eh/:d) th of £ii.^lancl had warmly espoused the cause ol 
the revolted Netht rlaiid«, ;uul her Admiral Sir Franci- 
Drakc had taken some of the Spanish seltlemenl?* in Amen 
t-a. To aveiij;c thc«iC injuries, the Invincible Armada of 160 
>hips of war, 27,COU men, and :3uOO pieces of cannon, was 
€H|ni]»ped by Philip for the invit-iioii of Lngland. Thi» Ens- 
lish licet of 108 ships, attacked them in the nii^ht, and burn 
and destroyed a sjreat part of the squadron : a storm, which 
drove them on the ;oc!iS and san«ls of Zealand, completed 
their dis;:onititure, and oidy lifty ^hatttM'ed vessels, >\iih 
»<i fiU men, returned to Spnin, loCC. 

.». Tlic restless spirit of Philip II. \\.\n enijaged at the sani' 
time in the roiluction of the Xetherlands, the project fortii 
invasion of Kn;^land, and the dismembering the km^^dom « 
Trance. Tlie la-^l scheme na^s as ineflfectual as we ha\ 
seen the two fornji'r. It was tlefealed at once l>\ the c«)i; 
\»M-iontd' Ifenry l\ . to the Catholic reli^on. The poIi< 
(>f P}iili|> hi'.d riMtliino; in it ii o il «»r i;enor<>ns. Ili^ re^tbes 
lunbivion w.is rUt<d to embroil Europe, but be h::d not the 
:ment to ttirn the distre-<rs he occasioned lo his own a«! 
.In b'.^ own kinL,'tlt>!ns, as in bis d- lifo, he 

^ioomv and inluunan tyrant. Yet from . iielyand 

ma-tiitude of his desi«^s, the power by whirh they were su]' 
j)orl».'«l, and tin- -ylendour of his dominion, the • 
Sj>ain was high p^ .-.^t.iM t .Mo im i!i,. j. .!»• ..f ;' 
]'-'!:npe. 



LIV. 

ST.VTE OF I :. v:tce in Tirl! end of tm^, ixi 

TCRY. 

I'T-RRV II., FAANCIS 11., Cll.Witr.i IIKMIV lir., 

AXD llC.VnV IV. ^ 

1. TiiK reformed reli;xion hacf ma<lc the great rr [irogre^s 
in France tV«)m the impolitic persecution it snsiiuned frooj 
Henry 11. tlie >on and successor of Francis I., who, thoiiL'Ii 
h'i aided ^he Pii'** ^t.tii' - (if f I'-TMi •'' \ in i< -i-dr." 'An ,!»-i),,. 



SECT. 54. MODERN HISTORV. 271 

tism of Charles V., showed no mercy to their brethren iu 
his own kingdom. 

2. On the death of Henry II. ilie con?p'racy of Amboisc 
>v;is i»l.amed by tlie I'rince of Conde, for the destruction of 
the Ouke of Guise, who ruled the kini^doni under Francis II,. 
and to whose intolerance and cruelty llie Proto*:tanls attribu- 
ted all their cal;ujiities. Guise owed his ascendancy chielly 
to the marriage of his niece, iMary C|ueci> of Scots, with the 
young monarch ; and the detection of this con<j)iracy, the 
mitssacre i>f i{< principal leaders, and the barbarous punish- 
ment of all who partook in it, while they conlirmed his pow- 
er, served only to increase the rancour of the contending 
" Tties. 

3. Francis II. ^d after a reign of a year, 1560, and was 
succeeded by his brother (Charles IX., a boy of ten years of 
age. The (r^ueen-Mother Catliarine de Medicis, who had 
no other principle but the love of power, was equidly jealous 
of the intluence of the Condon, and the Guises. An ecclesi- 
astical assembly, held by her desire at Poissy, gave toleration 
to the Protestants to exercise their worsiiip through all 
J 'ranc€, without the widls of the towns. The zeal or the im- 

• M'nre of the Duke of Guise i.ifrin^ed thi« ordinance, and 

jiartit's Hew to arms, 'i'lie Admiral Coligni headed the 

troops o( tlie Protestants, who were aided by 10,000 Germans 

from the Palatinate ; and Philiji of Spain, to increase the dis- 

r)rder5, sent an army to the aid of the Caliiolics. 

I. 'I'he horrors of civil war were aggravated by murders 
and a.esjissinations. The Duke of Guise was the victim of 
the frantic zeal of an enthusiast. After many desperate cn- 
gagrment,M with various success, q treacherous peace was 
agreed to by the Cat!»olics ; and Coligni, \vith the chiefs of 
the Protestant party, were invited to court, and received by 
the Q,ueen-Moiher and hor son with the most extraordinary 
mark-* of favour : among the rest Henry of Navarre, to whom 
the young monarch had given his sister in marriage. Such 
were {\\c preparatives to the infernal massacre of St. Bar- 
tholomew. On the night of the 23d of August, 1572, at the 
rir ' t the mutin-bcll, a genrral massacre was made by the 
* of all the Protestants throughout the kingdom of 

< iiarlcs IX., a monster of cruelty, assisted him^cU 
. ui'j Hjiirdor of his own subject's. 

'•. Ainidst these horrors, Henry Duke of Anjou, b/oth( i 

-IX. ^^ elected Kii 

laiv> ;i p — I —ion ol his throne, 

Fr.iri' . !.. .'le death of its execrable Sovereign, ir*71. The 

♦he new monarch Menrv HI. A\as ill fii'ed.l<v 



[enry Duke of .Xnjou, broth (i 
ing of IVland, but had stfnrrely 
'. when he was called t(5 th:it of 



272 MODERN HISTORY. PART 11. 

coDnpose the disorders of the kingdom. Equally bigottcd 
iind protligate, he beciimc the scorn of his siiltjccts, and the 
dupe of the contending factions. 

• 6. The Protestant party was now supported hy the Prince 
of Conde and young Henry of Na,varre, descended from 
Robert of Bourbon, a younger son of Lewis IX. Tlie Duke 
of Alencon, the King's brother, had likewise joined their 
party. The Cath./lics, to accumulate their strength, formed 
a bond of union, termed the League, nominally for defence 
of the state and its religion, but in re;\lity fur usnrjjing all the 
powers of government and su])pres-ing the Protestant faith. 
Of this dangerous association Henry HI., with the weakest 
policy, declared hini^^elf the head, and thus the avowed ene- 
my of one lialf of his subjects. He saw his error when too 
late ; and dreading the designs of the Duke of Guise, and 
>ng brother (he Cardinal of Lorraine, whose authority had 
ipcrseded his own, he b;:sely rid himself of his fears b} pro- 
uring their assassination. This vicious and contemptible 
vrant, after a reigu of tifleon years, was him>elf r.ssasFin.ited 
>y Jacques Clement, a Jacobin monk, from t!ie phrens} of 
•inati'ism, 158P. 

7. The next heir ot'the crown was Henry of Navarre, who 

had been educated a Protestant by his mother, the dnughter 

■>[' Henry D' Albert King of Navarre. At the age of sixteen 

he had bceu declared head of the party of the Huguenots ; 

'•is uncle the Prince of Condc and the Admiral Coligni acting 

s his lieutenants. His first military enterprises were unsuc- 

( rssful. Invited to Paris, at the jieace of 1 072, to marry the 

i-tvr of Charles IX., he narrowly escaped from the massa- 

le of St. Parthobjmew, but remained three yeai-s a prison- 

f. On the death of Charles, he again took the tield against 

I he army of the League, which he defeated in the battle ol 

< 'outras' 1087, and still more -ignally in that of Arques, L"389. 

\fler the death of Henry HI., he won the celebrated battle 

of Ivry ; and V»cin2; arknowledged Sovereign of France by 

all but* the party of the League, then in possession of Paris, 

he laid siege to" the city, which must have capitulated, but for 

the succours of PhilipH. | Heligioii was the sole cause of the 

disunion of France, and the only obstacle to the acknowledg- 

me nt of i lenry's title by the greatest part of his subjects. At 

the earnest persuasion of Uosni (Duke of l^ully), himself a 

Protef^ant. Henry was prevailed on to declare himselt a Ca- 

holic.\ He abjured at St. Denis, and was crowned King at 

('hartres, 1594. He ^oon after took possession of Paris ; but 

I < (i>i bim several year?, both of war and negociution, befor<. 



he gained the whole of his kingdom, cxhaus-tcd u< it was and 
ruined by civil discord. 

8. The subsequent life of thi^ excellent )>rince >va*= devo- 
ted to the reparation of these misfortunes. After forcing; 
Philip II. to conclude the advantageous peace of Vervins, 
1598, his whole attention was bestowed on the improvement 
of his kingdom, by reforming its laws, regulating its finr.nces, 
encouraging agriculture and manulactures, enlarging and em- 
bellishing the cities, and finally by successfully reconciling 
the partisans-of the contending religions. In all his beneii- 
cial schemes, he fouTid an able assistant in his minister the 
Duke of Sully, who has beautifully depicted the life and 
character of his nrasler. It is in his memoirs that we sec 
not only the great designs, but the private virtues, the enga- 
ging and amiable manners of this illustrious man, who, while 
he was the arbiter of the contending powers of Europe, was 
the indulgent father of a happy people. 

9. The period of the splendour and happiness of France 
waK of short duration. Henry IV., worthy to be immortal, 
was assassinated at the age of lifty-sevcn, 4th May, 1610, by 
Ilavailhi^;, an insane fanatic. lie meditated, at the time of 
his death, the great project of a perpetual peace between 
the states of Europe ; a design highly characteristic of the 
benevolent raind of its author, but which the weakness of 
mankind, and the impossibility of reasoning with nations as 
with, wise individuals, must for certain have rendered abor- 
tive. 



LV. 



HISTORV OF ENGLAND /.ND OF SCOTLAND IxV THE REIGNS OF 
ELIZABETH AND MARY tiUF.LN OF SCOTS. 

1. Elizabeth, daughter of Henry VIU. by Anna Bullen, 
succeeded to the throne on the death of her sister iMary, 
1558 ; and England attained to a hiirh degree of splendour 
under the rule of this great and politic Princess, whose tal- 
ents enabled her to pursue the true interests of her peoi>le, 
while her vigorous and intrepid mind led her lo t ike an im- 
portant part in maintaining the balance of power in Europe. 
While she. encouraged at home every useful art and manu- 
facture, !»he colonised a great part of North America, sup- 
ported the infuit republic of llolland against its [yranni' :al 
enemy, humbled the pride of Spain in the defeat of itJ* In- 

24* 



274 MODERN IIISTORT. PART ir. 

vinrible Armada, and assisted Ueiu^ 1\ . in the recovery of 
his kiagdoni. It was her fortiiiie to hdve the aid of most 
able ministers, and her merit to phice her confidence in their 
counsels. 

2. Had Elizabeth been equally endowed with the virtue* 
of the heart as with the powers of the mind, she would have 
ehonc the most illustrious character in the annals of modern 
Europe. Her con«luct to her < ousin Marv (.^ween of Scots 
ha.s fixed an indelible stain on her character. Mary, the 
danghtorofJanies V., and ixnat-f^rand-dauirhter of Henry VH., 
educated m France, and mairi«Ml, ^vheii very.youni;, to the 
Dauphin, afterwards Francis H., had imprudently assumed 
the arms and title of Queen of Enelautl, by the persuasion of 
her materri il uuchs tlic (iui»es. Tiie pretence was ihe ille- 
gitimacy of Elizabeth, declared by Henry VHI. on his di- 
vorce from Anna Bulieu. This false sh»p laid the foundation 
of all the nnseries of the (^ueen of Scots. *^ 

3. The Reformation Wiis at this time going forward in 
Srotland with the most ardent zeal. The Earls of Arjjyle, 
Morton, Glencairn, and others, its chief promoters, had, by 
their own authority, suppressed the worship of the mass over 
a great part of the kinj^dom. The Catholic bishops, by an 
ill-judged persecution of the Keformers, greatly increased the 
number of their proselytes. They beg:ui to muster their 
strength ; and hcailed by John Knox, a disciple of Calvin, a 
▼irluous man, but of the mo'-t furious and intemperate zeal, 
thn'w down the altars and images, exp( lied the priests, and 
demolished the churches and monasteries. Acting now in 
arms, and in open defiance of government, the Queen-Mo- 
tWer, Mary «>f Ciuise, attempteil, by the aid of French troops, 
to reduce her Frote-tant subjects to submission ; anti these 
applied for aid to the Protectant Queen of England. Eliza- 
belli tjent an army an«l a tleet to their assistance. The death 
of the Queen-.Mother was followed by a capitulation, by 
which it was agrerd that the French should evacuate Scot- 
land, anil that M iry should renotince all |)rrlension to the 
crown of England. The ProtesUmt religion, un<ler Presby- 
terian forms, was now established in the room of the Catho> 
lie. 

4. In this situation of Scotland, Mary, at the age of eigh- 
teen, on the death of her mother, and of her husbanel Francis 
n., returned to her hereditaiy kingdom ; having fortunately 
escaped an English tleet which Elizabeth had dispatched to 
take her prisoner on hrr passage. Her misfortunes began 
from that hour. Her Protestant snbjert- regarded their Ca- 
<iioIic Queen with abhorrence, and looked up to her eucmy 



SECT. 55. MODERN HISTORY. 275 

Elizabeth as their support and defender. That artful Prin- 
cess had secured to lier irHerest the very men on whom the 
unsuspecting Mary placed her utmost confidence, her bastard 
brother the Earl of Murray, the Earl of Morton, and Secre- 
tary Lethington. The views of Murray, aimed at nothing 
less than his sister's crown, and the obstacles which opposed 
his criminal ambition served only to render his attempts 
more darins; and more flagitious. 

5. The marriage of Mary with her cousin Lord Darnly, 
son of the Earl of Lennox, wiio stood in the same relation to 
Elizabeth, was not relished by thiil Princess. Encouraged 
by her ministers, Randolph and Cecil, Murray formed a con- 
spiracy to seize and imprison the Queen, and put to death 
her husband, and usurp the government ; and on the detec- 
tion of his designs, attempted to support them by open re- 
bellion. Defeated, exiled, pardoned, and loaded with benefits 
by his injured Soverei'^n, he persevered in the same atrocious 
purposes, till he at length accomplished them. 

6. The spouse of Mary had incurred her resentment by 
his vices and his follies. Taking advantage oC the weakness 
of his mind, Murray, Morton, and Lethington, had rendered 
bim jealous of the partiality of Mary for her foreign secre- 
' TV, the a2;ed Rizzio,-and eng:iged him in the barbarous act 

1 murdering this ill-fated wretch at the feet of the Queen, 
to whose g-arments he clung for protection. The purpose of 
this shocking outrage was to procure the abortion of Mary, 
then big with child, and possibly her death ; or should she 
survive, to alienate completely her nffecticms from her hus- 
band, and thus to render her suspected of the design they 
had projected of cutting him off by assassination. In the lat- 
ter purpose they succeeded. The house which Darnley in- 
habited was blown up by gunpowder ; his body was found 
strangled near the place, and the report immediately prevail- 
ed that Mary had been accessary to his murder. 

7. A most imprudent step, to which she was conducted by 
the same band of traitors, gjive countenance to this suspicion. 
At the earnest recommendation of Morton and some of her 
chief nobihty, she naarried the Earl of Both well, a man 
openly stigmatised as one of the murderers of her hushand. 
ffe had, it is true, been absolved on trial for that crime, jyid 
had by force made himself master of her person. The plans 
of Murray and his associates, successful to tlie utmost of their 
wishes, were now ripe for consummation. On the })retext 
of the Queen's guilt of murder and adultery, she was confin- 
ed by Murray in the castle of Lochleven, and there compel- 
led to resign her orown into the hand? of her unnaturaJ bro« 



27G MODERN- HISTORY. J'.mii . tl 

tlirr, who was to f;overn the kingdom ns Recent during the 
minority of hvv int';int son, now prochurned king by the title 
of Jjunes VI., 15'J7. Bothwell escaped beyond seas and 
died in Denmark. 

8. A great j)art of the nation reprobated these infamous 
proceedings. Mary escaped from her conhnement ; and at 
the lioad of an army g:ive bn^ lo to the rebels at Langsidc 
but, being defeated, «he lied fur ?iielter to the north of En<: 
land. Klizabeth, who had secretly taken part in all the ma- 
chinations of her enemies, had now gained a great ol>ject of 
her anjl)ition : she had in her hands abated rival, and by her 
•^tip|)ort of Murray and his part}', the absolute command of 
the kingdom of Scotland. Yet poMcy required some show 
of friendship and humanity to the Q,ueen of Scots, ^vho 
claimed as a suj)pliant lier protection and aid. She professed 
her desire to do her justice, but first required that she should 

. Irar herself of the crimes alleged against her. To this 
.ifary agreed, in the intrepidity of conscious iimocence. In 
a conference held for that purpose, Murray openly stood 
forth a«5 the accuser of his sifter and Q,ueen, appealing to 
certain letters said to be written by her to Hothwell, plainly 
intimating her guilt. Copies of these letters were producecl. 
Maiy demand«*d the original*, boldly <leclaring them to be 
the forgeries ol lirr enemies ; but they were never produced. 
She retdrted on Murray and Morton the charge of Darnley's 
murder ; and the conference was broken off at the command 
of tiie C|tie»'n nf Knularnl, who detained Mary in ( lo.«»' im- 
prisonment. 

9. The unuenerous policy of Elizabrlh was condemned by 
her own subjects. The Duke of Norfolk, the lirst of hor 
nobility, and, though a Protestant, favoured by the Catholic 
party in Eni:! nid, secretly projected to marry the C^ueen of 
Scots ; and the discovery of these views giving alarm to 
Klizabeth, brought that ill-fated nobleman to the block, and 
hastened the doom of the unfortunate .Mary. Worn out with 
the miseries of her confinement, she privately solicited the 
aid of foreign princes for her <leliverance. Her cause was 
espoused by all the Catholics of England ; and some of th< 
most intemperate of tiiese had formed a j)lot to deliver her 
from captivity, aud to |)lace her on the throne by the murder 
of Elizabeth. This dangerous conspiracy was discovered, and 
its authors deservedly suft'ered death. The schemes of Mary 
for her own deliverance were held presumptive of her ac- 
quiescence in the whole of the plot. Though an independent 
sovereign she was brought to trial before a foreign tribiin;il, 
which had already decreed her fate ; and being condemned 



SECT. 55. MODERN HISTORY. 277 

to suffer death, she was beheaded at Fotheringay Castle, 
1587, in the forty-fifth year of her age, and nineteenth of her 
captivity in Enghmd. Previously to this event, Murray had 
fallen the victim of the private revenge of a gentleoian whom 
he had injured, and Lethington poisoned himself in prison, to 
escape the sentence of his enemies ; Morton, for e )me time 
Regent of the kingdom, was afterwards tried and suffered 
, death for his concern in the murder of Darnlcy. 

10. We have noticed the formidable preparations of Phi- 
lip U. for the invasion of England, and their disastrous issue 
in the total destruction of the Invincible Armada. The Eng- 
lish, in their turn, made descents on the Spanish coasts ; 
and the glory of the nation was nobly sustained by those 
great Admirals, Kawk'igh, Howani, Drake, Caven lish, and 
ilawkins. The Earl of Essex distinguished nimself in those 
expeditions, and won the favour of Elizabeth, both by his 
prowesjj and personal accompbshments. Tiic death of Lei- 
cester, her former favourite, and of her minister Burleigh, 
lefl Essex unrivalled in her aflections, and of chief authority 
ill the direction of lier councils. Haughty .ind impatient 
of control, he disgusted the nobles ; and his failure in quel- 
ling a rebellion in Ireland gave them grouiid to undermine 
liiiu in the favour of his I^overeign. In the madness of in- 
ordinate ambition, he proposed to possess himself of the per- 
son of the Queen, and compel her to remove his enemies, 
and acquiesce in all his measures. This treasonable enter- 
prise brought him to the scaffold, ICOO. 

n. From that time Elizabeth fell into profound melan- 
choly, and soon after died, in the seventieth year of her age, 
lt!03, having named for her successor James VI. King of 
Scotland. Her talents were great, and the firmness of hor 
mind unequalled ; yet her private character was tarnished 
by cruelty, hypocrisy, and an unsatiable desire of admira- 
^tion. Her maxims of government were despotic, and she 
liad little regard fbr the liberties of her people, or the privi- 
leges' of her parliaments, to whom she never allowed the li- 
berty of disputing her commands. The .actual government 
of England in those days was little difl'erent from an abso- 
lute monarchy. 



278 MODERN HISTORY. PART II 

LVI. 

HISTORY OF GREAT BRITAIN IN THE REIGNS OF JAMES I. ANB 

CHARLES I. 

1. Jamf.s VI. of Scotland succeoiled by hereditary right 
to the throne of England, thus uniting the two crown? ; a 
prince of considerable learning and talents, but of little vi- 
fi;our of mind or j)olitical energy. He became iin}>opular 
irom h\< notions of an uncontrollable prerogative, to which 
unwisely proclaiming hi* title, he provoked his subjects to 
(question it. The current of public opinion was now strong- 
ly turned to an extension of the rights of the subject, and re- 
trenchment of the ])owers of the crown ; and during this 
reign, the seeds were sown of that spirit of resistance on the 
}>art of the people, which was destined in the next to over- 
turn the constitution. 

2. Domestic events were such as chiefly distinguished the 
reign of James 1. A conspiracy was discovered iri li)()3 for 
subverting the government, and placing the Kuig's cousin, 
Arabella Stuart, on the throne, in which the Lords Cobham 
and Grey and SirWalter Kawleigli were prinripally concern- 
ed. The two former were jiardoueti, and Kawleigh con- 
demned, but reprieved ; when, on the ground of his infringe- 
ment of the peace with Sj)ain, by unwarrantably attacking 
one of her American settlements, he was, after an iiiti rval 
of lifteen years, beheaded on his former sentence. 

3. Another conspiracy followed of a still more dangcrou'; 
nature, the gunpowder trcitson ; a plot of the Catholics to 
destroy at one blow the King and the whole body of the pai - 
liament, IGOl. It was discovered, from a circumstance of 
private friendship, on the very eve of its accom})lishment ; 
and the principal conspirators suffered a capital punishment 
The public indignation now raged against the Catholics ; I 
and the humanity of James, which sought to mitigate thi- 
fury, was as ungenerously as absurdly constrtied into a f. 
vour which he entertained for their religious principles. ^ 

4. it was a peculiar weakness of the King to attach him- j 
self to undeserving favourites. Such was Carre Earl oCi 
Somerset, who had no other recommendation than a hand- 
some j>erson^ind who, after several years exercise of all tli- 
insolence of power, fell into disgrace, on conviction of li. 
concern in an infamous murder. Mis place was supplied by 
Villiers, afterwards Duke of Buckingham, a man devoid ■ ' 
every talent of a minister, and odious to all ranks^of the sl.a. 
He planned a journey of Charles Prince of Wales into Spnin 



SSCT. 56, MODERN IIIsTOr.V. _ 7 '^ 

to court the Inlantii, and by his folly and insolence irustrat- 
ed the treaty on the brink of its conclusion. 

5. Elizabeth, the daughter of James, was married to the 
Protestant Elector Palatine, who was dispossessed of his 
electorate by the Emperor Ferdinand III. for imprudently 
accepting the crown of Bohemia, till then an appanage of the 
empire. James was urged by Parliament to a war in defence 
of his son-in-law, which touched the nation both as a point 
of honour, and as the cause of the Protestant interest. He 
sent a feeble armament, which was of no service ; the only 
military enterprise of his reign. His favourite j)roject was a 
complete union of the kingdoms of England and IScotlaud ; 
a measure which, however beneticial, the mutual prejudices 
of the two nations were as yet too violent to bear. As a pre- 
paratory step, the Episcopal hierarchy was introduced into 
i?cotland ; but this served only as the fooc!i)f future commo- 
tions. Jumes I. died 1623, in the 59th year ot his age, and 
22d of his reign over England. 

G. On an impartial estimate of the character of the suc- 
ceeding monarch, Charles I., it may be allowed, that had the 
nation in his reign entertciined the same ideas of the regal 
prerogative, of the powers of parliament, and of the liberty 
of the subject, that had prevailed tor the two preceding cen- 
turies, this unfortunate Prince would have reigned with high 
popularity. But it was his lot to mount the throne at that 
critical period when the public opinion \\:h\ undergone an en- 
tire revolution on those topics ; and, with many excellent 
endowments both of head and hc:irt, ho wanted that politi- 
cal prudence which should havo taught him to yici 1 to the 
necessity of the times. 

7. Chnrles quarrelled with l)is tTr.-t parliament on their re- 
fusal of adecjuate supplies for the war in supjiort of his bro- 
ther-in-law the Elector Palatine. Engaged to his allies, the 
* King, dissolving the pnrlinment, issued wiurants for borrow- 
ing money of the sul»ject. A new parliament was Ibund 
equally uncomplying, and evinced its jealousy of tlic King 
by the impeachment of his minister, Buckingbnm ; Charles 
avenging the insult by imprisoning two members of the House 
of Commons. A quarrel thus begua received continual ad- 
dition from new causes of olfenee. The levying money Irom 
the subject was enforced by billeting soldiers on those who 
refused to lend to the crown ; and some were even imprison- 
ed on that account. A war was undertaken against France 
by Buckingham's instigation, a sufficient cause of its unpopu- 
larity ; and it ended in a fruitless attempt on Piochclle. The 
King again dissolved bis parhament, !0C6. 



280 MODERN inSTORY. PART 11. 

8. A new parliament exhibiteil a spirit of dctcrmincil rc- 
lonnation. A Pdilionof Right was passed ])Y both Houses 
whicli declared the illei>;ahty of raising money without theii 
sanction, or eiiU)rring loan? from the sul)joct, annulled all 
taxes imposed without consent of parliament, ami abolisheil 
the exercise of the martial law ; and Charles was obligcil 
with much reluctance, to give liis assent to this great r« 
trenchment of prerogatives, sanctioned by the usage of the 
most popular of his i)redece«sois. 

9. The taxes of tonu.ige and poundage had usually been 
coatinued from one reign to another. On this ground th' 
King conceived he was warranted to levy them without a nen 
♦Tyrant; and a member of the House of C't)mmons was im- 
prisoned on ref»is:d to pay them. This arbitrary measur< 
excited an outrageous terment in that assembly, and the con- 
serpience was a new ilissolution of the parliament, \62i). 

10. It was now a measure of necessity to make peace with 
France and .'spain. The Kiui; persevered m levying the ton- 
nage, poundage, and ship-moin'y, and high lines were impo*- 
cd for variou«» ofTences, without trial, by authority of the Slar- 
chamljer. The legality of the tax of sliiji-moni'V was disj)uted 
by Jidin Hampden ; but he was condemned by the Court of 
Kxcheipier, contrary, as was generally thought, to justice and 
the laws of the realm. 

11. These discot»ienls were increased by rebgious enthu- 
siasm. Ciiarlcs, by the advice oi' Laud Archbishop of Can- 
terbury, hat! relaxed the penaltius against Catholics, and 
countenieacetl some innovations in the ceremonials of church 
wor.-^hip, preludes, as tliey ^vere termed, to the Popish idola- 
tries. He liad likewise imprudently attempted to introc- c 
the htur-iV of the church of Lngland amouij t!je Scots ; mea- 
<\\vc> whi -U <'xcited iu the latter couniiy the most j^neral 
discontent, atid produceil the most violent commotions, 
bond, termed the .ydiiunol Covenant, containin;^ an oath oi ' 
rer-islance to all religious innovations, wab subscribed in Scot- ' 
land by all ranks and conditions ; and in a General Assemldv 

at (Jlasj;ow, tlie «pi-:eopal hierarchy was bolemidy abolished, 
H3oO. To maintain this violent procedure, the Scot^ Kefonn- 
ers took up arms ; and, after seizing and fortifying the mo>! 
impoi\ mt places of strength in the kingdom*, boldly marched 
into tlie heart of Englaral. 

12. It was now absolutely necessary to assemble a parlia- 
ment ; and the King at length saw that the torrent was irre- 
sistible, and resolved, though too late, to erive it way. A bill 
passed for abolishing the tonnage and poundaec without con- 
sent of parliament, and received the royal assent. Monopo- 



SECT. Ob. MODERN H^STORV. !f 8 1 

lies of every kind were abolished. A parliament was agreed 
to be simmioned every third year. Unsatisfied with these 
concessions, the Commons impeached the Earl of Stralford, 
the King's first minister, of high treason, togetiier with Laud 
Archtjishop of Canterbury, who were charged, as the chief 
counsellors of the crown, with a design of subvertins; the 
laws and constitution of the realm. The fate of Strafford, 
whose trial by his peers would have terminated in his ac- 
quittal, was secured by a bill of attainder, to which the King 
was, with the greatest reluctance, forced to give his assent. 
The Commons seized that moment of anguish to obtain his 
consent to a decisive measure, a bill which rendered the par- 
liament perpetual, by declaring that it should not be dissolved 
or adjourned but by its own decree, 1641. Siralford and 
Laud were both beheaded. 

13. This last measure of the Commons evinced a deter- 
mined purpose to overturn the constitution. Their proceed- 
mgs hitherto had the show of justice, and most of them might 
be vindicated on the principles of true patriotism. But 
from this period their conduct was treason to their country 
and its government. — The last bill destroyed the equal ba- 
lance of the constitution of England, and every subsequent 
measure was a step towards its entire annihilation. 

14. Tlic Irish Cathohcs took advantage of these disorders, 
and, with the purpose of assuming the entire conmiand#f 
that kingtlom, and shaking oiV its dependence on England, 
attempted, in one day, to massacre all the Protestants in Ire- 
land. To extinguislj this horrible reliellion, Charles consign- 
ed to the pailiament the charge of the war, which tliey in- 
terpreted into a transference to them of the whole military 
powers of the crown. Under this authority a great force 
was levied, and supplied with arms from the royal maga- 
zines. 

15. The r>ishops having complained that their lives were 
m dimgerfrom the populace, and protested against the pro- 
ceedings of the Lords in their absence, were impeached of 
treason by the Commons, and committed to the Tower. The 
patience of Charles was exhausted. He caused to be im- 
peached five of the Commons, and went in person to the 
house to seize them ; a breach of the privilege of parlia- 
ment, for which he found it necessary to atone by a humilia- 
ting message. 

IG. A new bill of the Commons, naming the commanders 
of all the fortilied places, who should be responsible to parlia- 
ment alone, was understood to be a declaration of war. The 
next step was to assume the whole legislative pow^r by de- 



t62 MODERN- HISTORf. PART II. 

daring it a bre.ich of privilege to dispute the law of the hind 
declared by the Lords and Comnwns. But the former were 
mere name.bcina: entirely tinder the control of the hitter. 

17. The swonl was now to de<ide the rojitc-t. The roy- 
n\ can?e was supported by a great proportion of the landed 
interest, all tiio friends of ihc est;iMitihcdch\irch, and all the 
Catholics m the kin^tiom. On the side of the parliament 
were the city of London and most rf the greater towns, with 
all the dissenter?5 and sectaries. Th»' first rampai^n was fa- 
vourable to the royalists. Tliey detV.itedthe parlinmentary 
forces at Worcester and Etigehill, but lost the battle of New- 
bury. 

13. The parliament now entered into a strict confederacy 
with the Scots, both in the articles of politics and religion : 
and the Solemn Leir^ue and Covenant, a new bond, more •'pe- 
citic in its objects than the former, and more trcjisonahle in 
its ptirpose, was framed at Kihnlnirgh, for the puiification of 
both churches, the reformation of both kingdoms, the main- 
tenance of the privih^ges of King and parliament, and the 
bjingiiig to justice all malignatits. In consequence of this 
confederacy, 2U,0U0 Scots took the fieM to co-operate with 
the forces of the parliament. 

10. (Jhvcr Cromwell commamled at this time a regiment 
of horse under Fuiii'ax, general of the parliament, but in 
reality directed all the* i)H'asure> of the army. In Sro«l:uid 
the royal cau^e ^vas ;::dl;uilly Mi«<tamed by the Marrpii> of 
Montro.-o ; but all was lost in Lngland by the ilefent at iNase- 
by, 1C15. Th«» Kini^'s troop-* brini; rutin ly <li-persed, he 
threw himself into the hands of the .Scot"*, who hastily deli- 
vered him up to the commissioners of pnrliameBt, from 
whom he was takm by C'romwoir«i orders, and ronducted 
to the army, now ihema-ters of the kingdom. Cromuell, en- 
tering London, tt^suriied an absolute control over the par- 
liament, and imprisoned all who disputed his authoiity. 
Charles, escaping from his conlinemcnt, fled to the Isle of 
\ViL,ht, but was there detained a prisoner in Carisbrook 
Castle. 

20. The parliament, suffering undorthis military usurpa- 
tion, were now siiicerely desirous of termin iting a niisenthb* 
anarchy by a treaty with tlie King, and, after a long n- 
tion. all terms were finally adjusted. Charles a-irced i.' i ' - 
sign to parliament the njiiitary power, the di<po? d of all the 
offices of state, and the right of creating peers without their 
consent : he agreed to abolish the Kpi^copal hi ? v au! 

to establish the Presbyterian discipline ; and ■>- 

siong the parliument accepted by a majority of suflrages. an»^ 



SECT. 57. MODERN' HISTORY 283 

declnred to be a sufficient basjis for tire settlement of the 
kiugdoin. Cromwell instaiUly surrounded the House of Com- 
mons, and, exclijding all but bis own partisans (ubt)ut sixty 
in number), a second vote was passed, re^icinding the former, 
and declarini;it treason in a King to levy war agninst his par- 
liament. A court of justice was then appointed to try the 
King for this act of treason. Tlie House of Lords having 
unanimously rejected this decree, were immediately voted, 
by tiiis junto of independents, to be ;ui useless branch of Ihf' 
constitution. 

21 . Chai les was brought to trial ; and. refusing to acknow- 
ledge the authority of his judge-^, w.'u« condemned to suffer 
death. He was beheaded on the 30th of January, 1619. 
The arbitrary proceo(hng<* of tiiis monarch in the begiiming 
of his reign were certainly sulhcient to justify that resistance 
on the part of the people whicli at length j»roduced its effect, 
in confining the regal authority within its just bounds, and 
securing the ration:d liberties of {he subject. But from the 
period that tliis end Wius obtained, resistance censed to be 
lawful. Its farther operations were criminal in the extreme. 
The subsequent usurj>ations of the Commons can no more 
be justified on any constitutional princii»le, than the murder 
of the King can be defended on thr fccore of legality, i-iitirp 
♦r humanity. 



LVII. 

int: COMMONWEALTH OF E.VCr.ANP. 

J. The Parliament of Scotland bad taken no pnil in llic-t • 

. Iter scenes, and had formally protested a2:ainst tlie tri;«l of 

liie King. On his deatli they proclaimed Charles H. their 

Sovereign, but on the express condition of his j-iirninc; the 

Covenant, andcalilying tiieir Confession of Faitli. IreUmd 

i ecoj;niz^d him without any conditions. The heroic Mar- 

ijuis of Montrose landed in the nartb of Sf:ni!,uid with a (i \v 

foreign troops, and attempted to reduce the j.;\rly of the Co- 

onanters, and establish the legal authority of the Kins^, in- 

rpcndent of the servile re^rictions witlf which they had 

- itered it ; i)ut, attacked by a nnirh superior furce, he was 

defeated,. and betrayed into the hands of his enemies, who 

put him to de.ith by the bunds of (he executioner, ]C30 ; 

displaying in tlo circumstances of his punishment aU the in- 

•olcuGC of cruelty whichdistinguishes revrn«'e in tbe laear- 



?84 MODERN HISIORV. PART Jl. 

est of souls. Charles betook himsell' to Scotland, and was 
obliged, however reluctantly, to acquiesce in all the terms 
that were inipo>rd on liim. 

2. Cromwell witli lt),OuO men, marched into Scotland 
a^nst tlie now royalist Covcn.iiitcrs, whom he defeated in 
the battle vf Dunbar ; ami then InllowiiiL' the ruyal army, 
which retrr;iled into Kjigl.uul, Ik* rut tln-in to pieces in the 
decisive battle of Worcester, September 3. 1G51. Chnrle:^ 
fled in di-iruise throiitrh the western and s(»ntheru counties 
till be found an opporlunily of e>r.ni;iiL' ' > Kt iw <\ Crdrti- 
well returned in triumph to Londfn 

:i. The rei>uhli«;m p;irUnm«'nt foinitd aiitl ext « utcd u;reat 
.. >i^n«<. A war wilh Holland was mo«Jt ably maintained on 
both .••ides by those j^cat naval commanders, Hlake, Van 
Tromj), and I)e Kuyter ; but the advantat^e was i^reatly in fa- 
vour of the Knclish, whe t<»ok above IGOO of the Dutch 
ships. The Parliament, proud of the-'e successes, justly con- 
ceived that while the nation was thu^ powerful at sea, the 
land army was an tinno ' -v burden, an<l determined to 
retluct? il. 'i'o prevent ; ?ure, Cromwell framed a re- 

monstrance of the army, demnn<ling the election of a new 
p'i' it ; and this merti!)'i; with no rcjrard, he entered tlie 

li I Common>, which he had surrounde<l with his 

iroops, and, declaring the parUament dissolved by his autho- 
rity, fi)rril)Iy ttirned the men ' i ' . »r.<. The repub- 
lir of Kni^lnnd, Avhich had ^ i years and three 
ni'^'Vili-, was lhu« annihilated, in one moment, April 20. 1663. 

!. 'V. hnwevrr, that there should bo the ap- 

, , iiient. A few mean person*, of fanatical 

e! -re chosen by Cromwell's partisans, from (he 

diiVeieul « •lUjlieM of Knulan<l, with five from Scotland, and 
.iv r .,,,, Irelanl. to hold their functions for fifteen months. 
ul)ly, termed Hareboncs Parliament, from its lend- 
mu m in»i»er, a leather-seller, became the scorn of the public, 
■i:\<] was di?s(dved by its own vote, after five monlhx. 

T). Tlic government was now vested in the Coimcil of Ofh- 
<er8, who nominated Oliver Cromwell Lord Protector of the 
three kingdom**, invested him with the power of making 
peac e, war, and alliance, and authori'-cd a standini^ ariuy ol 
30,000 men to be kept up for the support of government. 
Tlis ;t(hninistration was despotic, viirorous, ' ' rited. He 
nraiiitained the honour of the nation in ; i with thV 

Dutch, compellintr them to yield the honour of the flag, aiui 
to compen>ate to the India Comp;my all it- ' - ^f \^«>«> 

succesiilul lik»'wise in his nei^oriiitions \vilh i . 'U 

Put in his domestic go\ernment he was traversed by kis p.M 



liamcnts, whom it cost him a continn.ii Mn)g-le, and even 
violence, to keep in order. One paihamtnl, properly pre- 
|»:uod, voted him the regal title, nhich, by the counstl of 
his best friends, he wa? forred most unniliingly to refuse. In 
recompense of this self-denial, the parliament confirmed his 
title oi Protector, with a fixed revenue, and decreed his right 
of appointing a successor, lie was King in all but the name. 
G. By consent of Parliament, Cromwell iippoinled n Hou5e 
of Lords ; but all the ancient Peers declined the prollcred 
honour. He was forced to choose them from the Commons • 
and thus he lost the majority m the Lower House. His tem- 
per soured with disappointment, a prey to chagrin, and in 
contiuurd lear of assr.^sination, he tell at length into a mortal 
dise<ise, and <!hm1 m the binh vear of his age, 3d Septem- 
ber, 1658. * ' 

7. Piichard Cromwell, son of Oliver, succeeded, by his 
. ither s appointment, to the Protectorate ; a man of weak 
'uiderstandmg and facile temper, utterlv unfit fur his ha/ard 
0U8 Htualion, which accordingly he maintained onlv for a few 
months, resigning his oflice on the 'J.M April, 1069. His 
brother Henry, Viceroy of Ireland, immediately followed his 
example ; and the family of the Cromwells, which the ta- 
lents of one man had elevated above the Sovereigns of their 
country, returned once more to its original obscurity. 

8. The remains of that nominal parliament which"had put 
the King to dr>aih, tinned, in derision, the liurnn, was now 
di^>olved by the Council of Oiticers. Of these every aspir- 
ing individual had hw own sejiarite views of amiution. In- 
trigue, cabal, and anarchy, were universal ; and the nation 
looking lonvard with horror to a series of calamities, be'^an 
earnestly to desire the restitution of its ancient uovernmeut. 
Oeorge ALmk, comman.Icr of the army in Scotland, judged 
these symptoms favourable for restoring the exiled n.onarch 
to the throne ef hi-, ancestors. Marchiug his annv into Eno- 
land, he declared h>8 resolution to bring about the election 
oi a free parliament, whirl, all men knew to be synonvmou- 
with the restoration of the King. U was of course VKdently 
ai.posed by the republican party, who even att< mpted to ex 
cite a new civil war ; but they were f,rced at length to acqui- 
esce in the measure. A frer parliament was assembled ; and 
a message^being presented from Charles, oflering a TmII in 
demnity, romplele liberty of conscience, and pavment to the 

ZTru '. '[Y''''"^'' ""'''. r^""'^^^^ ^'^'^ transports of jov. 
and Charles II. proclaimed King, 29th Mav IGCO 

25* * ' * 



285 MonERN HjM<»r. \. paki it 

LVIII. 

THE RF.rG.VS OF CHARLES H. AND JAMKS II. 

1. The nation, without imposing nny terms on their new 
Sovereii!::n, trusted impHcilly to his good dispositions. These 
were humane and comphicent ; but the character of Charles, 
indolent, luxurious, and prodigal, was neither titled to sup- 
port the national honour abroad, nor to command obedi- 
ence and respect to his domestic government. The sale of 
Dunkirk uas a measiire ollensive to the pride of tlie nation. 
A wur with Holland, supported at a vast expense, and main- 
tained iu many dc-jpemte but indecisive engagements, was 
attended tin.dly with no material benetit. By the treaty of 
Breda, concluded in lt)(J7, New-York was secured to the 
Eni^lish, the Isle of Polerone to the Dutch, ami Acadia, in 
North America, to the Ki ench. 

2. The sale of Dunkirk, and the unsuccessful issue of the 
war, attributed to the counsel of the Earl of Clarendon, pro- 
cwred the disgrace and banishment of that illustrious man, 
ItllJ7. The peace was scarcidy concluded with Holl.md, 
when England joined with her and Sweden in a triple alli- 
ance, to oppose the progress of the aruis of Lewis XIV. in 
the Low Countries ; and that object being attnin^'d. by the 
treaty of Aix-la-Chapellc, in 1668, the French monarch gjiin- 
ed the Engli"^h over to his interest, in a new war against the 
Dutch, which Drought their Kepublic to the brink of destruc- 
tion. 

3. The domestic adinini-tration of Charles was embroiled 
from varioiis causes, originating in the personal character 
and dispositions of the Sovereign. He trusted to profligate 
aod worthless counsellors. His arbitrary notions of govern- 
]!lent, and the partiality he showed to the Catholics, gave 
perpetu;J alarm and uneasiness to a great proportion of his 
subjects. Complaints resounded from every (juarter ; and 
the parliament recjuired a test oath, abjuring Popery, from all 
persons in public employment. On refusal to take this oath, 
the King's brother, .'ames Duke of York, was deprived of 
his office of High Admiral. 

4. Titus Gates, a worthless impostor, pretended to have 
discovered a plot of the Catholics for assassinating the King, 
burning London, massacring the Protestants, and placing the 
Duke of York on the throne. Another villain named Bed- 
loe, joinenl his evidence t j that of Gates ; and on their per- 
jured testimony, afterwards fully exposed, a few miserable 
priests suflered death. A new t«st was imposed, which ex- 



SECT. 08. MODERN HISTORY. 287 

eluded all Papists from both Houses of Parliament. The 
Treasurer Danby was impeached for advising the last peace 
with France, though it was proved that he had acted by his 
Sovereign's orders ; and a bill passed the House of Com- 
mons, excluding the Duke of York from the succession to 
the crown. A more important bill for the general liberty, 
the act of Habeas Corpus, was the work of the same session 
of parliament. (See Sect. LIX. § 14.) 

5. The distinguishing epithets of Whig and Tory were 
now first known ; the former, the opposers of the Crown, a- 
gainst the latter, its partisans ; and each party, as in all fac- 
tions, carried its principles to an extreme. The ^Vhigs, pre- 
dominant in the next parliament, raged with fury against the 
Catholics, and insisted on the King's assent to the bill for the 
exclusion of his brother. He had no other expedient but to 
dissolve them, but found their successors equally violent. 
After various fruitless attempts to conciliate their favour to 
his measures, a dissolution ensued of this parhament, the last 
which Charles assembled. 

6. But the great cause of dissatisfaction remained. The 
Duke of York was at the bottom of all the measures of gov- 
ernment. A conspiracy was formed by Shaftesbury, Russel, 
Sidney, and the Duke of Monmouth, natural «on of (he King, 
on the pretence of vindicating the national liberties. It was 
discovered by one of the associates, and Russel and Sidney 
suffered a capital punishment. The detection of this con- 
spiracy strengthened the authority of the Sovereign. The 
Duke of York was restored to his office of High Admiral, and 
tacitly acknowledged as the successor to the crown. Charles 
H. died Gth February, 1G05, in the 55th year of his age, and 
25th year of his reign. 

7. The Duke of York succeeded to the throne by the title 
of James 11. His reign was short and inglorious. He was 
the instrument of his own misfortunes, and ran headlong to 
destruction. The Catholics at this time were not the hun- 
dredth part of the nation, yet James was weak enough to 
make the desperate attempt of substituting the Popish faith 
in room of the Protestant. Discarding the nobility from his 
councils, he was directed solely by Romish priests ; and in 
the very outset of his reign expressed his contempt of the 
authority of Parliament, and a firm purpose to exercise an 
unlimited despotism. 

8. The Duke of Monmouth, having excited a new rebel- 
lion, was defeated, made prisoner, and beheaded ; and the 
most inhuman rigour was shown in the punishment of all hi? 
partisans. The parliament was in general submissive to the 



2oB HODLRN lllSroIU. I ART II 

K in<4 ^ will, which for a while met wilh no opposition or con- 
iK I. A declaration was published, cstahli^hing full liberty 
of oouscienco in matters of religion ; and several l)isliop.-, 
who refused to publish it in their dioceses, were committed 
to prison. A Cathohc president was appointed to one of the 
collect s of (Kford. An ambassador was sent to the Tope, 
and a p.ij)al nuncio received in London. The Catholics open- 
ly bo isted that theirs would «oon l)e the religion of the state. 
[K .lames hid three children : Miiry, the wifi^ of the Stadt- 
holder William I'rince ol" Orange j A!mo, married to Prince 
George of Denmark ; and James, an infant. The Stadt hol- 
der had looked on his right to the crown of England as cer- 
tain before the birth of this infmt, and, :Jter that event, pro- 
jected still to gain it b^' arms or intrigue ; the infatuation ol 
the King and the general discontent of the people giving him 
the most tlattering invitation. JamoR himself was infornuHl 
of these vieivs of his son-m-law, but would give th( m no 
credit, till actually apprised of his landing with an army, 1 jth 
November, l<i^8. 

10. The pi incipal nobility ami otTicer* inimediatelj joineil 
lie standard of the Pnnre of Orange ; and James was at once 

abandoned by liis people, hi-^ f.i\ourites, and his (»\vn cbil- 
<lren. Leaving London in di.«guise, he was discovered and 
brought back by the populace ; but the Prince of Orangi 
^visely f.iv«)iinng his e-cape, he found me;ins a few days after 
.o convey liim-^elf to France. 

1 1. The tlirone being declared vacant, it wa« proposed in 
. •onvention-parham^nt, that the crown should bo settled oi. 
:bo Princess Mary and h«T i«<sue, her hu-^band governinc: * 
.iegent ; whom fuling, ou the Princess Anne. The St .; 
holder declining the olfice of Regent, it was finally resolved 
.0 confer the crown on the I'rinrp and Princes^ o( Ornncr. 
Jie farmer to have the sole administration of the governmt 

IJ. To this settlement was ad«led a declaration fixing the 
lights of the subject and the royal preropitive. Of this iIk- 
most import^Mit arti<-les are the following : 'i'he King cannot 

uspend the laws or their execution ; he cannot levy money 
without con^^eut of Parliament : The subjects have riidtt to 
petition the Crown : A standnig army cannot be kept up in 
lime of peace but by consent of Parliament : Elections and 
parli.imentary (b'bate mnst be free, and parliaments must br 
freqtiently assemldeil, ^:c. Such was the final settlement o! 
the British government at the great era of the Revolution 

\t thi?i period, wiien the < onstitution of the country becam* 

Ixed md determined, we Unish the sketch of the history of 

uV own country. 



* CT. 5"3. MOBER.V iriSTORY. 28^ 

LIX. 

ox TUE BRITISH CONSTITUTION. 

1 . The rudiments of the constitution of England may be 
traced as far back as the Norman conquest. William distri- 
buted a great proportion of the lands among his Norman fol- 
lowers, sfubjccting these, as well as the Anglo-Saxons who 
retaining their property, to the feudal tenures, and thus extin- 
guished at once the ancient liberties of the people. — England 

[ was divided into 60,215 military tiets, all held of the Crown, 
under the obligation of the vassal's taking arms for his Sove- 
ien whenever required. In the continental kingdoms of 
i.urope, as in France, the feudal system arose by slow de- 
grees, nor was there of consequence the same union of the 
fabric as in England. The tcuil.d lords were independent of 
each other, ever at variance from their mutual pretensions, 
and often owing but a very slender allegiance to the Crown. 
Their vassals sulTered from oppression, and often struggled 
for their freedom ; but these efforts bein:; partial produced 
no ronsetpienoe favourable to the liberty of the nation. In 
England all were oppressed by the enormous weight of the 
Crown ; it was a common grievance, and y)roduce(l at times 
a violent efiorl for the general liberties of the people. 

2. The forest-laws imposed by the Conqueior (sec Sect. 
XV. 5 2. 11.) were a grievance felt by the whole nation, as 
rendering every man's property precarious, and subject to 
the arbitrary encroachments of the Crown. It was no won- 
der that the barons and their vass;ils should conlially unite to 
rill themselves of so intolerable a hardship. Henry 1. found 

necessary to conciliate his subjects, by mitigating the most 
rigorous of the feudal laws. A greater advance was m:ide 
under Henry 11. b}' the institution oi the trial by jury. }»ut 
John, imprudently resisting this natural progress towards a 
rational freedom, was soon compelled into those important 
concessions, the Charta dc Forcsta and J\Jagnu Charta. From 
that time, whatever we may judge of the actual government, 
winch was often most arbitrary and despotical, the constitu- 
tion of England was that of a limited monarchy. 

3. The next memorable era in the growth of the English 
constitution was the reign of Henry 111., when, under that 
weak prince, the parliament received a new form, by the 
admi-sion of the representatives of the people, the deputies 
of the counties and boroughs. (Sect. XXII. § 2. ) His suc- 
cessor Edward I. acknowledged their authority in obtaining 
all his subsidies, and ratitied uuew law, which declared, that 



290 MODERN HISTORY. PART li. 

no tax should be levied without the consent of Lords and 
Commons. — The Magna Charta was confirmed no less than 
eleven times in the course of this reign. 

4. Thus the constitution continued advancing, till its pro- 
gress was suspended by the civil wars of York and Lancaster. 
The rights of both prince and people seemed then to be en- 
tirely forgotten ; and the race of Tudor found no resistance 
from parliament to their vigorous but despotic sway. The 
talents of Elizabeth, and the high character vfhich her gov- 
ernment sustained with foreign powers, extinyuished all do- 
mestic disquiets, while the predominant feeling was the main- 
tenance of the power and dignity of the crown. 

5. But under the succeeding prince, when that power and 
dignity were abased by his own weakness, the nation began 
to awake from its lethargy ; and tbat spirit of opposition, 
which in this reign confined itself to complaints, was in the 
next to break forth with alarming violence. Charles !., en- 
dowed with superior energ}^ of character, and acting, as he 
conceived, on a principle of duty, which called on him to 
maintain the prerogative of his predecessors, and transmit it 
unimpaired to his posterity, was imprudent in exerting with 
rigour an authorit^^ which he wanted ultimate resources to 
support. He was compelled to sign the Pciiiion of Rights^ 
a grant more iiivourable to liberty than Magna Charta. The 
true patriots were satisfied with this concession, which con- 
ferred the most ample constitutional freedom.. But with the 
popular leaders patriotism was the cloke of insatiable ambi- 
tion ; and, advancing in their demands with every new com- 
pliance, the last appeal was made to the sword, and the con- 
test ended by the destruction of the constitution. 

6. The despotism which succeeded, and the fluctuation of 
power from the Long Parliament to the Protector, and finally 
to the leaders of a standing arm}^ afforded convincing de- 1 
monstration how vain was the chimera of a republic, under 
which the demagogues had masked their designs. Weary j 
of anarchy, the nation returned with liigh satisfiiction to the | 
best of all constitutions, a limited monarchy. { 

7. New encrouchments under Charles II. produced new , 
limitations, and the act of Habeas Corpus gave the utmost/ 
possible security to personal liberty. The violent and frantic 
invasion of the constitution by James II. banished himself: 
and his posterity from the throne, and produced a new and 
solemn contract between the King and people. Regarding,, 
therefore, the Revolution as the final settlement of the Eng- 
lish constitution, we shall endeavour briefly to delineate the 
chief features of that great political stracture. 



&ECT. 59. MODFJRN HISTORY. 29 J 

8. The constitution of Great Britain may be viewed under 
two distinct heads, the legislative and the executive power : 
the last comprehending the prerogative of the Crown. 

The power of legislation belongs to parliament, whose 
constituent parts are, the King, Lords, and Commons. The 
House of Lords consists of the temporal peers of England, 
and the spiritual, viz. the two archbishops and twenty-four 
bishops. To these, since the union with Scotland and Ire- 
land, are added sixteen delegates from the peerage of the for- 
mer kingdom, and thirty-two from the latter. The House of 
Commons consists of the deputies of the counties and prin- 
cipal towns of England, and the two universities, amounting 
in all to 513 members ; to whom, since the unions, are added 
45 from Scotland and IGO from Ireland. These deputies arc 
chosen by the freeholders who possess a property yielding a 
certain yearly rent. The Chancellor generally presides in 
the House of Lords ; the Speaker is president in the House 
of Commons. 

9. The King is the most essential component part of par- 
liament, because he alone has the power to convoke, pro- 
rogue, and dissolve it. He has likewise a negative on all its 
acts, which are invalid without his approbation ; and each 
house has a negative on the decrees of the other. It is like- 
wise competent to the King to propose any measure to be 
laid before the parliament. 

10. All questions regarding public affairs and national mea- 
sures may originate in either house of parliament, except 
grants of money, which must take their rise in the House of 
Commons, and cannot be altered, though they may be re- 
jected by the Lords. The matter must be primarily discussed 
in that house in which it originates, and, until there decided, 
cannot be received by the other, unless a conference should 
!be demanded. A bill refused by either house, or, though 
passed by both, refused by the King, is utterly void. 

11. The executive power of government is lodged in the 
King. (1.) The first branch of his office is the administra- 

(tion of justice. The judges of all courts of judicature are 
the King's substitutes. He is the prosecutor of all crimes, 
and has the power of pardoning and suspending the execu- 
tion of all sentences. (2.) He is the fountain of all honour^ 
the giver of all titles and dignities, and the disposer of all 
the offices of state. (3.) He is the superintendant of com- 
merce, and has the power of regulating weights and mea- 
sures, and of coining money. (4.) He is the head of the 
church, and names the archbishops and bishops. (5.) He is 
commander in chief of all Hie sea and land forces, and can 



292 MODERN* HISTORY. ?ART 11. 

alone equip flpol?, levy armie*, ami appoint all their officers. 
(G.) He has the })0\ver of making war, peace, and alliance, 
unci of sending and receiving ambassadors. (7.) He is abo\ • 
the reach of all courts of justice, and is not responsible to 
any jndicatnrf' for his conduct in tlie administration of gov- 
ernment. 

12. These iugli powers of the Sovercii^n, whitli, at first 
.*iirht, wouhl seem to remier him an absolute monarch, are 
thus admirably controlled : — The King is dependent on par 
liamcnt for ;dl siibsidies, without which he can neither main- 
tain his lleets nml armies, nor pay the salaries of ollicers 
The parliament indeed settles a revenue on the King for hf< 
but this is merely sufficient for the maintenance of his 
household, and supiiorting a proptrdii^nity of establishment ; 
and as it must l>e renewed by j»arliament ut the beginning of 
every reign, it is in the power of that body to witliold it till 
all abuses shall be remedied. Thus the constitution may be 
brouglit back at those periods to its first priiiciples, and all 
encroachmiMits of the prerogative restrained. 

i:i. The King can never reign wiihout a parliament, li 
must by law be as!'eml)led once in three years, on a notice 
of forty days before ita meeting. Altliough the head of the 
church, the King cannot alter the establi«ibed religion, nor 
frame ecclesiastical regulations ; ihe^c must be made by the 
assembly of thex:lergy. The King cannot interfere in the 
ordinary administration of justice, nor refuse his consent to 
the prosecution of crimes, He may pardon olVences, but 
( annot exempt the offender from pecuniary compensation {•• 
(he jiarly ifijured. He cannot alter the standard of money, 
eitiier in weight or alloy. He cannot rai>e an army without 
the consent of parliament ; aiul though a moderate standing 
force is kept up with their consent, the fund^ for its payment 
require an annual rt^iewal by parliament. 

Finally, although the Sovereign himself is not amenable to 
:^nv judirature. his ministers are responsible for all the mea- 
iiires of government, and are mipeachable by the Commons 
at the bar of the }louse of Lords, for every species of mis- 
conduct or misdemeanour. 

Moreover, the freedom of parliamentary discussion is se- - 
cured, as no member can be questioned for any opinions or r 
words, but in that house of parliament in which they were j 
uttered. 

14. The personal security and ihe rights of the subjects 

^are farther guarded by these three ])eculiarities of the British 

constitution, the Habeas CorpuSy Trial by Juries, and the 

Liberty of the Press. By the act of Habeas Corpus every 



] 



bLCT. o9. MODER:V IIISTuRV. Ii93 

prisoner mur=t be brought before a judge, ihe cause of his 
detainer certified, and the judge's authority interposed to it. 
The violation of this statute is punishable by the highest pe- 
nalties. The Habeas Corpus may be suspended in times of 
dinger to the state, a? during the existence of a conspiracy 
or rebellion. Although this act does not extend to Scotland, 
the subjects of that part of the United Kingdom are equidly 
secured by their own laws.* 

15. All crimes must be tried by a jury of twelve men in 
l^ngland and Ireland, and tifteen in Scotland. The prisoner 
has a right of challenging or objecting to the jurors ; and 
(except in Scotland) without showing any cause he may 
challenge twenty successively in ordinary cases, and thirty- 
five in cases of treason. The jury are judges both of the 
law and the fact ; nor has the opinion of the Court any weight 
in their decision, but such as they choose to give it. 

lij. The liberty of the press is in this respect a guardian 
wl' the constitution, that it is competent for any individual 
^to convey to the public his opinion of the whole conduct of 
^ government, and the merits of its conductors ; to canvass 
every counsel of state, and examine every public measure ; 
thus forcibly restraining all ministers and m igistrates within 
the limits of their duty. It is farther the guardian of injured 
innocence, and the redresser of all wrongs that evade the 
cognizance of law. Vet this most valuable right, if it- 
self unrestrained, would be the source of the greatest mis- 
chief If it were allow dile with impunity to assail the es- 
tal)lished government, to convulse society, to disseminate 
Atiieism, to injure the reputation or endanger the life and 
property of individuals by fdse accusations, there would be 
an end of all liberty and civil happiness. The liberty of the 
press consists in this, that there is no examination of writings 
previous to their being printed atid pu])lished ; but, after j)ub- 
li-^alion, such writinixs as offend in any of the above particu- 
lars, are, on trial of the ofi'ence by jury, punishable by law. 
Thu>* the public is properly constituted the judge and censor 
o{ all writings addressed to itself. 

17. Such are briefly the outlines of the admirable fabric 
of the British constitution. E>^o pcrpetiut ! 

• Statute 1701, c. 6. 
26 



:,'l>4 modern historv. tart ii. 

LX. 

OF THC PUBLIC REVENUE OF GREAT BRITAIN. 

1. The property belonging to the Crown of Great Britain, 
which was anciently very great, and fully adequate to the 
maintenance of government, consisted of domain-lands, the 
iirst fruits and tenths of church-bcnetices, the rents of vacant 
bishoprics and abbeys, the profits of military tenures, fines 
miposed in courts of justice, forfeitures, ^c. These are now 
from alienations made by the Sovereigns, and retrenchments 
of their prerogative, become so inconsiderable, that the King 
may be considered as entirely dependent on the people for 
the support of his dignity, and the means of carrying on the 
business of the state. The public revenue, destmod both for 
ihe former and latter purpose, arises now from the subsidies 
granted by the people. The supplies are voted by the Com- 
mons, and the means of furnishing them by taxes proposed 
by the Chancellor of the Exchequer, must receive their sanc- 
tion. 

2. Of these taxes, some are annual, as the land-tax and 
malt-tax ; and others perpetual, as the customs, excise, salt- 
duty, post-office duty, stamps, house and window-tax, duties 
on servants, hackney-coaches, pensions, &c. The customs 
ire a tax paid by the merchant on all imported and exported 
commodities ; the excise an inland imposition, laid sometimes 
on the consumer, and sometimes on the retail-seller. 

3. The produce of these taxes is, in the first place, destin- 
ed to the paying the interest of the national debt, and after- 
wards to the ordinary support of government. 

The national debt arose soon after the Revolution, when it 
was thought h.izardous to impose annual taxes equal to the 
annual expense of government, and more expedient to bor- 
row large sums for the immediate service of the state, raising 
annually no more than to pay the interest of that debt. The 
same system has been since persevered in ; so that the na- 
tional debt, which a ce5itury ago was 16 millions, is now 
above 300 millions. To pay the interest of this enormous 
sum, the produce of the taxes (excepting the fnalt and land- 
tax) are primarily destined ; and as somewhat more is annu- 
ally raised than that exigence and the maintenance of go- 
vernment demand, the surplus constitutes a sinking fund for 
paying off the princi])rd of the debt. 

4. The produce of the taxes, originally separate funds, 
is now thrown into two or three capital funds, one of which 
is mortgaged by parUameat for the maintenance of the 



SECT. 61. MODERN HISTORY. 295 

King's household and the civil Hit, viz. the salaries of ofli- 
cers of state, judges, ambassadors, private expenses, pen- 
sions, &-C. 

5. Notwithstanding the little prospect of an extinction of 
the national debt, government maintains its credit, and 
will always find lenders, because the terms granted are bene- 
ficial, and the security is transferable ; so that a lender can 
thus always obtain payment of his principal sum, and fre- 
quently make gain by the transference. The value of stock 
rises and falls from various occasional causes, as national 
prosperity, or the reverse, plenty or scarcity of money, quan- 
tity of public debt. On this variation is founded the practice 
of stock-jobbing ; that is, either buying and selling actual 
property in the public funds, which is a lawful speculation, 
or gaming and wiigering on the price of stock, which is an 
illicit though common practice. The practice of stock-job- 
bing, even by the transference of actual property, far more 
by gaming on that which is fictitious, is prejudicial to com- 
merce and manufactures, by engrossing a great part of the 
national wealth, repressing industry, encouraging fraud, and 
often tempting to the most treacherous and dangerous devi ■ 
ces for raising and sinldng the funds. 



LXI. 

HISTORY OF FRANCE UNDER LEWIS XIII. 

1. France, which under Henry IV. had risen from a stale 
of miserable anarchy to high prosperity and splendour, sunk, 
upon his death, into weakness, faction, and disorder. Mary 
of Medici, Regent in the minority of her son Lewis XIII., 
a weak woman, and of restless ambition, disgusted the no- 
bility by her partiality for her Italian courtiers. Conciui. her 
first minister, created Marshal d'Ancrc, became so univer- 
sally odious, that he was openly murdered in the Louvre, and 
his body torn to pieces. The C^ueen was removed from 
Paris, and kept for two years a prisoner at Blois, till relieved 
by the Duke d'Epernon, to serve his own purposes of ambi- 
tion. The (Queen's party was at war with that of her son, 
and the whole kingdom in a state of anarchy. 

2. The genius of Cardinal Richelieu, who was now brought 
into power by Mary of Medici, soon effected a wonderful 
change. He reconciled the mother and her son, soothed the 
coatcnding flvctions, and, on the King's assuming the govern- 



296 MODERN HISTORY. PART IF. 

mefit, directed every public measure to the complete re-es- 
tablishmcnt of the power and dignity of the monarchy. The 
party of the Calvinists, alienated by persecution, attempted 
to throw olf their allegiance, and estabhsh an independent 
state, of which Rochelle should be the capital. Richelieu 
bargained with tlie Dutch to furnish a tleet for subduing their 
Protestant brethren, and the Dutch now fought as keenly for 
the Catholic religion as they had lately' done for the Protes- 
tant. The English sent a fleet to the aid of the Rochellois, 
who for a year maintained a most obstinate siege against the 
Frencli troops commanded by the Cardinal in person. They 
were at length forced to surrender ; and Rochelle, with all 
the other Protestant cities of France, were stripped of their 
privilei^os, and had their fortifications destroyed. Thus Cal- 
vinism w<i» for ever crushed in France. 

3. Lewis Xlll., though a weak Prince, saw his advantage in 
riitcriug into all the great designs of his minister. Richelieu 
mlluenced the politics of all Europe. The power of Austria 
was attacked in German}', Flanders, Spain, and Italy ; and 
tlie talents of the minister were equally displayed in active 
war, in Ibreign negociation, and in his domestic arrangements. 
Vet at this very time a formidable cabal was undermining 
him. Mary of Medici was jealous of the man she had rais- 
ed, and the Duke of Orleans, the King's brother, sought to 
supplant him in his power. Richelieu, with astonishing in- 
trepidity of mind, repressed this conspiracy. Fortified by 
the King's authority, he seized the Marshal de Marillac, one 
of his most dangerous enemies, at the head of his army, 
and fried and put him to death by a lawless stretch of power. 
Orleans, apprehensive of a similar fate, fled the kingdom ; 
and Mary of xMedici, arrested and removed from court, ended 
lier career of ambition in voluntary exile at Brussels. Or- 
leans, supported by tlie Duke de Montmorenri, attempted a 
rebcliiou ; but their army was defeated, and Montmorenci 
executed lor treason. The Queen had taken part with the 
enemies of the Cardinal. He imprisoned her confessor, 
seized and examined her papers ; and Anne of Austria was 
very near sharing the fite ot Mary of Medici. 

4. Amidst all this turbulence both of foreign war and state 
abal, Richelieu cultivated the pursuits of literature, encou- 
raged the sciences, instituted the French Academy, and 
composed pieces for the theatre. The administration of Ri- 
chelieu, though turbulent from faction and civil war, was, on 
the whole, extremely glorious for France, and the seeds were 
sown of the splendour of that monarchy in tlie succeeding age 
of Lewis XIV. The death of this great minister, 1G42, was 
soon after followed by that of his Sovereign, Lewis XIIL, 1C4?, 



SECT. 62. fiODERN HISfORY. 297 

LXII. 

SPAIN UNDER PHILIP III. AND PHILIP IV. CONSTITUTION OP 

PORTUGAL AND OF SPAIN. 

1. From the death of Phihp II. Spain declined in pow- 
er, and, notwithstanding her great sources of wealth, the na- 
tional finances were in the utnaost disorder. Philip III. was 
forced to conclude a peace with the Dutch, and to restore to 
the house of Nassau its conhscated estates. With a weak 
and despicable policy, he expelled from his kingdom all the 
Moors, who were the most industrious of its inhabitants, 
1610 ; and this depopulation, joined to that already produ- 
ced by her American colonies, rendered Spain a lifeless and 
enervated mass. 

2. The national weakness and its disorders increased under 
Philip IV., who, equally spiritless, as his father, was implicitly 
ruled by liis minister Olivarez, as the former had been by the 
Duke of Lerma. His reign was one continued series of mis- 
carriages and defeats. The Dutch seized Brazil ; the French 
invaded Artois ; Catalonia revolted to France ; and Portugal' 
shook off its yoke, and became an independent kingdom. 

3. No revolution was ever effected with such ease and cele- 
rity as that of Portugal. The people were disgusted with 
the rigorous and impolitic administration of Olivarez. The 
Duke of Bragnnza, descended from the ancient kings of Por- 
tugal, had at this time the command of the nrmy. Instigated 
by the ambition of his Duciiess, and seeing the spirit of the 
nation favourable to his views, he caused himself to be pro- 
claimed King at Lisbon. The Spanish guards wore attacked 
and routed, and the chief partisans of the government put to 
death by the populace. All tlie principal towns followed the 
example of the capital, and soon after all the foreign settle- 
ments. From that era, IGIO, Portugal became an indepen- 
dent sovereignty, after having been for sixty years an appa- 
nage of the kingdom of Spain. 

4. The government of Portugal approaches to an absolute 
monarchy. The consent of the states or Cortes, consisting 
of Clergy, Nobility, and Commons, was formerly necessary 
to the imposition of taxes, and the settlement of the succes- 
sion to the crown. But this assembly, never convoked but 
by the royal mandate, has now for a long time ceased to 
meet. The ordinary business of government is transacted 
by the King and his council of state, which is appointed by 
himself. The crown's revenue arises from its domains, in- 
cluding the family-estates of Braganza, from the duties on 

26* 



^9B MODERN IllSrOhV. tART IT. 

exports and imports, from the taxes?, and iVom a stated pro- 
portion of the j:old brought fi om Brazil. The s>tate of the 
commerce and niannfaciure> ot rortngvil i:^ extreinelv low ; 
and, tliongh favonred hy soil and climate, the agriculture of 
the kir\i:;duni is nnjch iK'ii!o< Icrl. 

5. The reigns of Philip ill. and IV . ot >pain, tho»igh an 
era of national humiliation, derived some $mall hijilre from 
the ^^tate of literature. I)ramali<- composition, poetry, and 
roinaucc, and even history, were cultivated with i;reat suc- 
cess. But these are in some sort the amusements of indo- 
lence, and this was the i»redominant character of the people. 
This character may have arisen from two sources : the tor- 
icnt of wealth poured in from Ameri<:a retarded, in the lower 
classes, domestic indu'^try and manufactures, while it increa- 
sed the pride of the [gentry, and made them disdain all oc- 
cupation ; and the despotism of the «jovernment i« slrongls 
repressive of all enterpri-io an<l activity in the people. . 

C. The <:onstitution of .Spain, of which tiie soverei^ity was 
in ancient times elective, is now that of an ahsolute monar- 
chy. The crown is hereditary ; though at different times, as 
in lt'»Jf) and 171.3, there has been a new limitation mado by 
thr inonar<h of the succession, 'J'he Corla^, or states of the 
kingdom, limited in fonner limes the power of the Sovereijffn, 
\n\{ Ch irh*>i V. reduced their aiilh<Hity to uothin«j:, by depriv- 
in;^llie nobility and clert^y of iheir-rat in those assemblies ; 
the remainine^ members, the deputies of the town*, heinij en- 
tirelv un«h'r the control of tin' iMonarch. 'I'he Kini:;'s coun- 
• il, or Consfjii Jxeal, H the oi'^rm of '^ov t-rnment ; but there i*^ 
o department of the state which has nny constitution:U pow- 
' r to regfilate the will v( the Prince. 



LXlll. 



^FFAIR9 OF (;ERMANV J^ROM THE AnnTCATIO.V OF CIIARLK« 
V. TO THE rtACE OF WKSTPHALIA. 

1. To preserve the connexion of the affairs of Germany 
with those of the other kingiloins of Kurope, we mu><t look 
back to the porio<] of the abdication of Charles V., when the 
enij)ire was distracted both by the j)olitical factions and quar- 
rels of its inilependent princes, and the contendinc; sects ol 
:he Catholics, Lutherans, and Calvinists. Kcrdinand attempt- 
ed to reconcile these factions, and unite the three religions, 
bui in vain. Maximilian II. had still less power to effect this 



XT. 6i. WODERN HISTORV. O99 

object than his predecessor ; nor was the face of affiiirs at alJ 
"iiang^ed during the succeeding reigns of Rodolphus II. and 
Matthias. A civil war of thirty years" duration reduced the 
empire to extremit}. Under Ferdinand II., a zealous Catho- 
lic, the Protestant states of Bohemia, who had sullered under 
the government of Matthias, conferred their crown on the 
Elector Palatine ; and the Emperor, in revenge, deprived 
him l)oth of his crown and his electorate. 

2. The Protestant cause was declininij fast in Germany, 
and every thing seemed to indicate *uccess to the schemes of 
1 Ferdinand for its entire annihilation, when it received new 
■ vigour from the iutervenlion of Cuistavus Adolphiis King of 
Sweden. This great Prince defeated the Iniperial Generals, 
and carried the Protestant banners triumplKintly through 
Germany. The Emperor was completely huml»Ied, and the 
Elector Palatine on tlie eve of restoration to his dominions, 
when the heroic Gustavus was slain in the battle of Lutzen, 
1632. The war was successfully prosecuted by the J^wedish 
Generals, while Cardinjd Richelieu harassed the House of 
Austria both in Germany and Spain. 

.). In the succeeding reign of Ferdinand III. the Protestants 

i}\ Germany found the most active support both from the 

Swedes and the French ; and th-: Emp(^rur being forced to 

I conclude the peace of Westphalia, 1G48, these powers dictat- 

! cd it- terms, By this celebrated treaty all dispntes were set- 

' tied between the contending piinces of the empire and the 

I" contending religions. Tlie inved(!« were indemnilied for the 

I charges of the war, and accpTirod Pomerania,Sto(tin, Wismar, 

i &c., and their Sovereign the dignity of Prince of the empire ; 

! the Palatine family was restored to its chief possessions ; the 

Kiny; of France made Landgrave of Alsace ; and an erjual es- 

tablJ^hme^t decreed of the three religions. This salutary 

peace laid the foimdation of the future greatocss and pros 

perity of the German empire. 



F\l\ 

FRANCE UNDER LEWIS XIV. 

l. Ov the death of Lewis XIIL, 1G63, his son Lewis XIV. 
succeeded to the throne in the lifth year of his age. Europe, 
as we have seen, was in a most turbulent state ; and France, 
under the administration of Richelieu, acted a conspicuoue 
part in exciting those general commotions. The Queen- 



300 MODERN HISTORV. PART II 

mother, Anne of Austria, appointed Recent by the states, 
rlK)><e for her niiiiister the Cartlinal Muzariii, an Itahan, and 
from that circuni^tatice odiotiii to the people. The J>paniarili?. 
tiiking advantage of tlie kini:;'.«» minority and the J)opulardi^- 
contenif«, made an attack on Champagne ; but thi y were de- 
feated in a series of en^.ii;enu'iits by the threat Conde ; and 
the Marshal de Tiirenne shared with him ttie pahn of glor} 
The peace of Westphaha composed these ditVerenccs. 

2. At this very liin»* iUv <t>nMnotion> of the Fronde broke 
out in Paris The jealousy felt by the nobihly of Miizarin's 
power, tlie unpopularity of his measures, the disorder of the 
linances, and the opprers-iou of new taxes, inllamod tlie na- 
tion ; and the intri;;ues of the coadjutor, atlerwards Cardinal 
de Kel/, blew up tin-' llamr into a civil war. Tlie p.irlia- 
menl of Paris look part with the rebels, who were headed hy 
the Prince of Conli, the Dukes of Longueville and Houillon, 
and tlie chief nobility. 'I'he (|ueen an«l the royal funily re- 
moved to i>t. Ciermain's, and the nnnistenal party besieged 
Paris. Turennc, who at first supported them, was gained 
over bv the rebels. The women, who have always their 
part ii» the disturbances of Prance, had a conspicuous share , 
in those of the Fronde. A short pacitication ensued ; but the ' 
imprudent \ iolence of Maiiiarin so<»n renewi'd the disorders. 
At lerii^th the parliament of l^iris assumed the ri;;ht ofbanish- 
intij this unpopular minir^ter, who retired to the Imperial do- 
minions, thouicb hi-i intluence continued still to regulate the 
measures of state. 

.'J. A chanjre ensued on the Iving's coming of age, 1C6J 
Oc Ket/ and Orleans, the chief pr<«moters of the rebellion, 
ivorc banislj^ed, and Ma/.irin resumeii his station as minister. 
— Cuude hadjoinetl the Spani.ird> in an attack on the French 
Netherlands, but was overmatched by Turenne, who reveng- 
i'/l this insult by the titkiiiij; of Dunkirk, atui several fortified 
towns under tlie Spanish government. Dunkirk, was, by 
convention with Cromwell, ceded to the Knglish, and aftei 
wards stdii back to Frarn-e, as we have «een, by Charles II. 

4. The war with Spain was ended in 1(J01», by the peace 
of the Pyrenees. Many cessions were made on both side - 
but Franco kept Roussillon and part of Artois. It was stij>u- 
lat<'d that Lewis XIV. should marry the Infanta, daughter of 
Philip IV., but should renounce all right that might thence 
open to the crown of Sjiain. 

o. 'J'he treaty of the Pyrenees gjive peace to the south of 
Europe ; and the wars in the north between Sweden* Poland, 
and Denm.irk, which arose after the abdication of Chri>tina 
•jf .Sweden, were terminated in the year folio win;; by the 



SECT. 64. MODERN' HISTORV. 301 

treaty of Oliva. Christina, a singular but not a great char- 
acter, held the sceptre of Sweden for twenty-two years after 
the death of her father, Gustavus Adolphus ; till at length, 
tired of the cares of government, and atlectinga pas^sion for 
literature and philosophy, she resigned the crown in 165-1, to 
her cousin Cliarlcs X. ; an example which was followed goon 
after by Casimar King of Poland, though after an honourable 
reign, and for a better reason, age and sickness. 

G. Mazarin died in IGGl, and Lewis XIV. entered on a 
\ igorous and splendid career. The finances, which from the 
time of Ilenrv IV'. h:id been in extreme disorder, were ad- 
mirably regulated by Colbert ; and the commerce and manu- 
factures of the kingdom, wii^cly encouraged by government, 
were soon in the most flourishing situation. The canal of 
Languedoc joined the Bay of Biscay and the Mediterranean ; 
the principal sea-ports were enlarged and fortified ; and the 
internal police of the kingdom was regularly and strictly en- 
forced. The arms of France aided at the siime time England 
against the Dutch, Germiny against the Turks, and Portugal 
;v::;Minst Spain. 

7. On the death of Philip IV^ Lewis, on pretence that 
^p lin had failed in ])aymrnt of the dowry of his Queen, be- 
sieged and took Lisle, with several other fortitied towns of 
Flanders, and in the next campaign made himself master of 
Franche-Comte. The Sovereign marched with his armies, 
but the glory of these conquests was owing to Turoniiv: and 
Vauban. The triple alliance formed by England, Holland, 
and Sweden, checked this career, and brought about the 
treaty of Aix-1 i-Chapelle, 1G68, by which Lewis, though he 
retained Flanders, restored Franche-Comte, and confirmed 
the peace of the Pyrenees. 

8. The strength ami prosperity of the kingdom centinued 
to increase under the «ble administration of Colbert and Lou- 
vois. The civil iartions of Holland between the Stadtholder 
and the party of the De Wits, tempted Lewis to undertake 
the coaquesl of that country ; and England, Germany, and 
Sweden, favoured his \lews. He overran the provinces ot 
Utrecht, Overyssel, andGuelderlaiul, and a<lvanced almost to 
the gates of y\msterdam, when the Hutch inundated the coun- 
try by letting in the sea, and the French were forced to re- 
U'oM. '^,. 

d. The confederate powers now became jealous of the 
ascendancy of 1 ranee ; and the Prince of Orange had sufli- 
cient influence with Engl-uul, and both branches of the house 
of Austria, to obtain their aUiance in aid of the republic. 
The anns of LcNvis, however, still continued to be success- 



302 MOnERV HISTORY. PART If. 

fill, and the peace concluded at Nime^icn, in 1673, \va* 
much to the honour pf France. Fr.inclH-Conilo wasagsnr- 
ed as a part of her dominions, and Spain alloned her rij^ht 
hy conqu( St to a «;reat proportion of the Netherlands. 

10. Notwithstanding; tlie p'-are, Lewis, with the most culpa- 
ble in-inrority, seized Strashurg, and secretly took i>art with 
the Hungarians and Turk-s in their attack on the Impcn.il 
dominions. Vienna must have fallen into the hands of the 
Tiirk^, had it not l»een «eason:ihly rrlievrd hy the victo^io4l^ 
irni' of John Sohir«.ki Kin^of Poland, KJ83. 

I 1. One of the wi-akest and mo«t ir^iolitic measures of 
l.t ui-i \IV. was th»^ revor;ition of the edirt of Nante**, j^rant- 
♦mI 1»v Ht'iiry IV. for the toleration of the Protectants. While 
tlieir worship was suppressed, their churches demolished, 
;.nd their mir»i*t<M-s hani^hrd, the Frotc'^tant laity were for- 
bidden, under tln^ m )st rii^oro-n penalties, to tpiit the king- 
dom, 1(585. FVnnce, however, hy this measure lost above 
r)(»(),(KK) of hrr mo«tt industrious and useful subjects ; and 
tlio name of Lewis XIV. was execrated over a great p.irt el 
Europe. — It was not Ion;; after thia time that a similar ei- 
ress of intoler.uit bipitry pr^'cipitrtted James II. from the 
throne of Britain, and f.)i. .-.I bun to >« ck :in :i>>\birM from the 
Monarch of France. 

12. Wilb im Prince of Oiani^o. tlic inveterate enemy <• ' 
Lewis, brousjhl about the league of Augsburg, IGOO ; and the 
war was renewed with France by (Germany, Spain, Kngland, 
aod Holland. The French arms were still successful. Lu\ 
eml)er?; defeated William in the battles of Steenkirk an 
Nerwinden ; Noaille*« was victorious in Spain ; and an arm 
of 10(),<K)d French ravaged the Palatinate, and took niii. 
of the most important town** oti the Rhine. This was tb 
crisis of the jrlory of Lewi", who-o fortunes were to susitain 
the mo^t mortifying reverse. 

13. Thosp \-arious and mo.-i . \i< o^ivi- Moiitar' enlerpn- 
t»cs, however tVitterirer to the pride of the .>IonarcL, had been 
attende«l with enormous eipense, .and no solid advantage to 
tlie nation. The finances had fallen into disorder after the 
death of Colbert : a peace w:l< ab«iolutely necessary ; and 
by the treaty of Kyswick, concluded in ltj97, I^ewis restor-i 
ed lo Spain all the contjU»'st-i made in the two last wars, se- 
veral town'i to the Fanp«'ror. the l>urby of I^orraine to iN 
Duke, and acknowledged the right of William to the crouii 
of Koixland. 

1 L The succession to th«' kintfdom of Spain, on the ex- 
pected death of Charles il. without issue, was now the ob- 
ject of political intrigue. The Emperor andtthc King of 



SECT. 64. MODERN HISTORV. 303 

France had the only natural right of succession ; but Wil- 
liam in. of KnglanJ, from the dread of such an increase of 
power to either, proposed a treaty of partition of the Spanish 
dominions, at home and abroad, between the Elector of Ba- 
varia, the Dnuphin, antl the Emperor's second son. Charles 
II. chose rather to make his own destination, and appointed 
by will that the Duke of Anjou, second son of the Dauphin, 
should inherit Spain ; f)n whose death without issue, it should 
I devolve on the Archduke Charles, youngest son of the Em- 
I peror. 

15. On the death of Charles, the Duke of Anjou succeed- 
ed to the throne of Spain, in virtue of this settlement. The 
Emperor, the Kin^ of England, and the Dutcli, proposed to 
■separate from his crown the Spanish dominions in Italy. In 
I his enterprise Prince Eugene, son of the Count de Soissons, 
commanded the Imperial troops, an illu>trious renegado 
from Fmnce, of great prowess and military skill. 

IG. James 11. ot' EuLcland died in 1701 at St. Germain's, 
and Lewis gave mortal oflence to that government by ac- 
knowledging the title of his son. On the death of King Wil- 
liam in the year folluwinir, war was declared by England, 
llollind, ami the Empire, ag•ain^t Trance and Spain. Lewis 
XIV. was now in the decline of life. He had lost the ablest 
i'f his ministers and liis ure.itest generals. The tinanccs of 
the kingdom were exhausted. The armies of his enemies 
w ere commanded by Eugene and the Duke of Marlborough, 
the ablest generals of the age, and supporteil by the treasures 
of the united powers. Savoy aiul Portugal joined this for- 
midable confederacy, to overwhelm both branches of the 
house of Hourl)on, and place the Emperor's son on the 
throne of Spain. 

17. Marlborough took Venio, Ruronionde, and Liege, 
and, tog'Hher with Eugene, defeated Tallard and Marsin, 
Tvith the f'h.'ctor of iiavaria. in the signal hatile of Blenheim, 
ITU). Lngland and I lolhnul attacked Sjkmm by sea and land. 
( atalonia and Valencia were subdued in six weeks ; and (iib- 
r.il! r, taken by thti F^ni^lish, has ever since remained with 
thiMii. In tiie battle ol" Kauiilio, .M.nlhorough deleated V il- 
K roy, and left !ilO,000 dead on the tield. The contest, at tirst 
(IniMfiil in Italy, ended alike disastrously for liie house of 
lM)url)on. The Ar.hduke Charles wa.-. in the mem time pro- 
cl imed King at Madiid ; and riulip V. bad seriou.s thoughts 
of abondoriing Spain, and establisjiing hi,-, dominion in Ameri- 
ca. But the successes of the Duke of li<*rwu:k, natural sod 
of .Tames IL, recovered for a while his desponding spirit, and 
even prompted hi^ grandfather Lewis to avenge himself on 



JOl IIODERX mSTORV, I ART 11. 

Kngl.iiiJ, by aiding the boUl hut desperate enterprise of es- 
tablishing the Fi -Hcnder James on the throne of Britain. 

18. But France and Spain were daily losing ground. The 
Pope I'.ad arkno\vlcdii;ed the title of the Archduke Charles ; . 
the English seized the ^lediterranean islands ; and Lewis, > 
fallen from all his proud pretensions, humbly entreated a 
peace, which was refused, unless on the condition of his de- 
throning his grandson with his own arms. He maiiilaine*' 
for a while this unequal contest, an*l was at length forced t 
propose terms equally humilialiug ; the cession of all his con- 
quests in the Netherlands and on the Rhine ; the acknow- 
icdgraent of the Archduke's title to the crown of Spain ; and 
a promise to give no aid to his grandson ; but th«"'se were 
refused, and the inhuman condition still insisted on, that he 
should himself assist in dethroning his grandson. A last ex- 
ertion was made in Spain under the Duke of Vendome, at 
the head of a protligitjiis army ; ami the victory obtained by 
tiie French at \ illa-viiiosa restored Fhihp V. to the throne of I 
Spain. His competitor, t'ne Archduke, soon aAer became 
Kmperor, on tlie de.ith of his elder brother. 

I'J. The intrigues of the cabinet of (r^ueen .Anne, and th< 
coming in of a Tory ministry, changed the politics of Eu- 
rope. It was r.'isolved to mske peace with France and 
Spain, and the treaty was conrluded at Utrecht, 171.3. — It t 
was stipulated that Philip King of Spain should renounce all ''- 
eventu;d right to t'le cn)vvn of Frau'-e, as his brother should 
to the crown of Spain ; the Dutch nblained an extension of 
iVontier ; the Kmj)eror a great part of Spanish Flanders ; the 
English gaii»ed from Spain, (libraltar and ^linorca, and from 
France, Acadia, Newlbundlaiul, and Hudson's Bay ; with 
one term most humbling to the latter, the demolition of th< 
harbour of Dunkirk. In the following year a |K}ace was con- 
cluded at Kastadt between France and the Empire. 

20. The conclusion of this peace, after an honourable 
war, was the most memorable event in the reign of Queen 
Anne, if we except the Union of the two kingdoms of Eng- 
land and Scotland, 1706, which was brought about by the 
neL;otiation of commissioners mutiially chosen, to secure the 
rights of either kingdom in the best manner for their mutu- 
al benefit It was stipulated that they should be represent- 
ed by one parliament, (Sect. LIX. § 8.) but that each king- 
dom should retain its own laws and its established re\hv<<'\^ 
and that they should have the *ame privileges v 'th respe'" to 
commerce. The succession to the crown was limited to the 
house of H mover. Queen Anne died DOth July, 171 i, .md 
Lewis XIV. on l3t September, 1715, in the 78th year of 



SECT. Go. MODERN IlISTOKi". 300 

his age ; a prince of great vigour of mind, of good talents, 
though unimproved by education, of dignified yet amiable 
manners, and whose greatest fault was his inordinate ambi- 
tion, to which he sacrificed the real interests of his people. 
It was his highest honour, that he discerned and recompens- 
ed every species of merit ; and France was in his time 
equally illustrious by the great military talents of her gene- 
rals, and by the splendour of literature and the arts and sci- 
ences. 



LXV. 

.,i .. :,, COXSTITUTfON- OF VR.K'SrE rvnm iHE rMj.XARCHi 

1. It is necessary, for understanding the history of France, 
that we should have some acquaintance with its Ibrmcr mon- 
archical constitution ; and wc shall vQry briclly trace the 
pro;^rcss of its government under the different races of its 
Sovereigns. The regal prerogative was, under the Mero- 
vingian princes, extremely limited. (See Sect. If, HI.) 
Tiiegancral assembly of the nation had the right of electing- 
the .Sovereign, and the power of legislation. Under the Car^ 
lovingian rice, the authority acquired by Pepin and Charle- 
magne sunk to nothing in the hands of their weak posteritv ; 
and though the crown had ceased to be elective, the re«-al 
dignity was a mere shadow. The power of the state Imd 
passed into the hands of a turbulent aristocracy, ever at va- 
riance among themselves, and uniting only to abase the 
crown and oppress the people. 

2. Under the third Capetian race, the crown acquired 
more weight, and many of the Sovereigns exerted a proper 
spirit in restraining the power and punishing the lawless out- 
rages of the nobles. It was to balance the weight of the 
aristocr.icy that Philip the Fair introduced the third estate to 
the national assemblies, which for above four centuries had 
consisted only of the nobles and clergy. The chief power 
of the state began now to «hift to the scale of the monarch. 
The aational assembly interfered rather to ratify than to de- 
cree ; and in the tifteenth century the right of le^i-lalion waF 
understood lo reside wholly in the crown. The right of 
taxation seemed to follow of course ; nnd the assombhcs or 
states-general were now rarely convened, and from the reign 
of Louis XIII. entirely laid aside. 

27 



'0 VODERX niSTORY. PART 

^'. But anoilier powrr gradually Jiro<e in the state, which 
m some measure supplied llieir functi(»ii in limiting the roy- 
;:1 preroi^alive. The parlinments wore originiilly nothing 
more than the rhuf courts ot' justice in the territory where 
they were established. The P.irliament of Paris had natu- 
rally a iii^her respect and di;:;nity than tha^e of the provin- 
ces, anil, acquirini: a rii^hl of aj>peal from their decrees, was 
considered as the paramount jurisdiction, and the depository 
4ifthe laws of the kin-^dom. The Sovereigns of France, on 
first assumin:; the powers of lc;;i-l.ition and taxation, pro<luc- ' 
ed their edicts to be rejristered in that court, and freipiently 
consulted with it* memhers on momentous afl'airs of stale, as 
in questions (jf peace, war, or alliance. Thu-^ llu* nation he- 
Z^n to rc<;ard the parliament of Paris as a body which shar- 
ed the powers of cjovernuient with the Monarch : and. in the 
latter reii^is, the parliament availed itself of that general 
opinion, and ma<le a bold stand in opposing any arbitrary 
stretches of the King's authority, by refusing to verify and 
••r'o;isler his edicts. 

1. Hut as this power of the parliament was in reality an 
usurpation, it was constantly a subject of dispute. The 
mem))ers of this court were in no sense the representatives of 
*lje prople, or vested with ;iny portion of the constitutional 
authority of the national assomblios. They were in the 
Kin/s nomimtion, removeabb^ by him at jdoasure, and even 
subject to CTilirc annihilation as a !>ody :it his cfinmund. 
Nay, without sn violent a remedy, the Sovereign could at 
any tifn* frustr;it«' ihrir opposititm to his will, by appearing 
prr-ionally in the hall ot p;»rIi,uMent, and cotuniiUiMin-j: hi- 
♦•ilict to be registered. 

6. Vet even a power tl-.us e:i>ily <i«t» asToli' h;;d ii< ;u;van- 
1 icies to the state, and operated as a very con.-ider.dde re- 
straint on the royal authority. Considering il-^clf as the j^iar- 
dian of the public liberty, it remon-trated atpiinst all arbitra- 
ry encroachments of the Crown, and by c:i\ini; alarm to the 
nation, furnished nn oppo«*ition snOu iently powerful to ob- 
tain its ends. T!ie provincial paili unents, allhn;iir!i they 
likewise rei;isteretl the royal edicts, neverassumed any sim- 
ilar authority. 'J'hey were no more than the chief courts oJ 
i\ il JMdicnture. 
t». The King of France was therefore to be considered nk 
an absolute monarch, but who-je authority was in some de- 
force limited by the consuetudinary regulations of tli- 
and could not easily become entirely tlespotic and t^jii.M.- 
cal. The < rown was hereditary, l»ut could not descend to a 
female, nor to a natural son The royal revenue was part 



_, . . L.. MODERN' HISTORY. oOT 

ly fixed and partly arbitrary. Tlie former comprehended 
the royal domains, the duties on wines and salt, the land- 
tax, capitatioB-tax, and gift of the clersry ; the latter arosr 
from all other taxes which the monarch thought ht to impose 
and from the sale of othces. Most of these duties were Ici^- 
ed out to the farmcrs-2;eneral. 

7. The G.illicnn church, thou<;h Catholic, and acknov. - 
ledi^inLjthe spiritual authority of the Pope, had ^^reatly abridi^- 
ed his anv:ient prerog-atives witliin the kingdom. The iu*- 
sembly of the church, in 1G82, declared, that no temporal 
Sovereign could be deposed by the Pojic, or subjects absolv- 
ed from their allegiance : it decreed the subjection of tlx- 
Pope to the counrih of the church, and denied his infidlibili- 
ty wiien in opi)Osition to the canons of those councils. The: 
Pope had no power to levy money in Fraiice without the 
rovid liconco. In short, tlie ecclesiastical authority was iu 
all respects subordinate to the civil. 



LXVI. 

OP PETER. THE GREAT, CZAR OF )!USCOVVj AND CHARLES XII 
ilLNG OF SWEDEN. 

1. Two most illustrious characters adorned tlie north of 
Europe in the latter part of the age of Lewis XIV., Peter 
the Great of Muscovy, and Charles XIL of Sweden. 

Russia is said to have received the light of Christianity in 
the tenth century, but its history is utterly unknown till tlu 
middle of the fifteenth. At that period John Basilowitz re- 
deemed the empire from its subjection to the Tartar*, ani' 
extended its limits. His successors maintained a consi^ler;; 
ble s])lendour as Sovereigns ; but their dominions were un- 
< uUivaled, and their subjects barl)arians. Alexis Mi'-.haelo- 
vvitz, f.ilher of I'eter the Great, Avas the first who published a 
code of laws. It was not till the end o{ the sixteenth cerilu 
vy that Siberia was added to the empire, whicli till then w.c 
i)0Mnded by the Ilniits of Europe. 

J. Peter, the youngest sou of the Emperor Alexis, bccanv 
tiii-tcr of the empire in 1GC!», by setting aside a weak cldtr 
brother, and b;iiii>hing a factious sister, who had seized the 
government, l- iterly uneducated, his } outh had been spent 
tri debauchery ; btjt his new situation iinme»hately dir^played 
his tab I.:-, and gave birth to the wisest phms for (he improve- 
41CU ';aibarous people. The army and nuw demand- 



30G 510DERN HISTORY. rART II. 

nd his first attention. He be2:im by breaking the turbulent 
jnihti.i of the Strchtzes, and by degrees forined a regular ar- 
my of 12,0U0 men, on ilie t^lridobt model ol discipline. He 
omployed some Dutchmen to build a small l1eet, and made 
die first experiment of his arms in taking Azof from the 
Turks, IG96. 

:). Having gained the little instruction he possessed from 
foreigners, Peter resolved to travel in search of knowledge, 
^^pointing Le Fort, an .ible Genevese, his ambns>:idor, he 
r.vclh^d a** a private person in his suite through Germany 
' IIoll;iiid, and studied tlie art of ship-building, by working 
!ii tiie docks ivitli !iis own hp.nds. Thence he passed to Eng- 
land, and in a simiUr manner acquired the knowledge of ev- 
. y art fitted for the improvement of his kingdom. The re- 
lative sciences were cultivated with the same ardour and suc- 
cess ; and in sixteen months he returned to Moscow to re- 
duce those important acquirements into practice. 

4. Regiments v.ere raised and trained to exerc i>c <mi tlu- 
Gernnn model ; tlic finances arranged and systematized ; 
!hc church reformed by new canons and regulations ; the 
()atri iirlialc aboli«ihed ; and a much abused civil and crimi- 
nal jurisdiction taken iVom the clergy. It was necessary to 
arry this reform even totJic abolition of the national dress, 
aiul the suppression o{ ancient usages and habits of life ; in- 
novation'^ r dni t;iiith' submi'lrd to, but enforced by pbsolute 
power. 

T). AVhile lias great genius was tlius employed in new- 
..odclling and polishing a barbarous empire, a competitor 
rose to diapnte with him the sovereignty of the North, and 
divide the admiration of F.uropc. Charles XH. succeeded to 
he throne of ."^weden ItiOa, at fifteen years of Jigc ; a prince 
vhose sin2;ular heroism of character and extraordinary 
icbievements have ranked him with the greatest conqtierors 
wf antiquity. The situation of his kingtloui speedily brought 
•lis geiiius into display. Hus^iia, Poland, and Denmark, join- 
• d in a league to seize and sh ire his dominions. The attack 
.vas bcf;un by the Danes on Holstein, while the King of Po- 
land ir»v;!dcd Livonia, and the Czar, Ingria. Charles imme- 
diately landed an army on Zealand, at the gates of Copen- 
iiagcn ; and in six weeks forced the Dane to purchase the 
afety of his capital and kingdom, by la} ing down his arms, 
and makine; full indemnity to the Duke of Holstein. Thf. 
Swedish Monarch now iiastencd into Ingria ; and atthebat- 
;le of Narva defeated C0,000 of the Russians, and took 30,000 
prisoners. Such was tlie first campaign of Charles Xll., 
then a boy of seventeen- 



illtf. (j€'. iiCDKIiX HISTOID y, oOi)- 

6. Poland was destined to receive a yet more humiliating' 
chastisement. Charles reduced Coarland and Lithuania, 
penetrated into the heart of the kingdom, and subdued the 
capitals of Warsaw and Cracow. He then assembled the 
states, declared King Augustus deposed, and signified hi^ 
pleasure tliat Stanislaus, his own dependent, should be elect- 
ed Sovereign of Poland. The factions of the kingdom aided 
this revolution, and the will of Charles was complied with. 
The deposed King retired to his electoral dominions of Sax* 

7. A negotiation begun with the Czar was abruptly ter- 
minated by Charles, who declared he would only negotiate 
at Moscow ; and entering the Russian dgminions with 45,000 
men, be was in the way of making good his tbreat, when he 
was induced, by a treacherous promise of aid from the Cos- 
sacks, to march through the Ukraine in the dead of winter. 
His army was wasted by fatigue and famine, when he was en- 
countered by the Czar at Pultowa ; and the fate of Russia, 
Sweden, and Poland, hung upon tliat battle. Charles was 
entirely defeated ; 9000 Swedes fell in the held, and 14,000 
were taken prisoners, 1700. Augustus was restored to the 
throne of Poland, and the Czar took possession of Pinland 
and Livonia. 

o. With the wreck of his army, reduced to 1800 men, 
Charles retreated into the Turkish dominions, and forme<i a 
camp near Bender. He endeavoured to prevail with tlie 
Grand Seignior to arm against the Czar, ami succeeded after 
a long negotiation. Two hundred thousand 'i'urks took the 
field ; and the Czar's army, infinitely inferior in number, was 
surrounded, and, at'ter ineflectual resistance, forced to capitu- 
late to the Grand \'izier. — The news of this capitulation was 
death to all the hopes of Charles ; and his subsequent conduct 
seems the result of phrenzy. The Grand Seignior having 
intimated his desire that the Swedes should (pjit his territo- 
ries, Charles fortified his camj), and declared he would de- 
fend it to the last extremity. After every means inellerLu- 
ally tried to make him alter this resolution, he was attacked 
by the Turkish army, and taken fighting sword in hand 
amidst a massacre of his troo])s. 

9. The Czar and the King of Denmark were in tli; 
time tearing Sweden to pieces. Charles returned in di.^gi i^e 
with two of his officers to his own dominions, and imni 1'- 
ately conceived the design of wresting Norway from ])rn~ 
mark. Failing in the outset of this enterprize, he w.is per 
suaded by Gortz, his prime minister, to enijage in anotlier, the 
dethroning of George II., seizing a part of his continental do« 



SIO klODERN UISfOKY. PAR i I. 

minions, and placing tho Pretender Jumcs on the throne o 
Ln,j;l;jnd. This projt'ct was ronccrtoil bt'tvvcen Gortz and 
Ahjcroni, prime minister of Philip V. Tlje Czmt joined in the 
scheme, and made peace with Sweden ; but an unforeseen 
«^vent hn)ke all tlxir measures. In besieeini; ihf' Norwejjia!! 
fortress oi ^rcderick^hall, Charles Xil. was killed by a can- 
non-hall, 11th December, 1718. 

lU. Sweden i;.iincd by the death of Charles a reformatioi 
of her government, and a salutary limitation of the arbitrar\ 
j)owcr of the Sovereign. His sistrr L Irira stucceeded to th« 
throne, and raised to it her huf^band, Frederick Landjjravc ol 
llesse-Cariscl. The State's made j>cace with all the hostile 
])Owers. The Czar was now enj^asjed in a war with Persia, 
in the view of obtfiininj; the rommand and commerce of tin 
C,i-j»ian. This objrrl he arc<)mj)lishe<l, and gained, by ces- 
sion from the Sophi, three provinces of the Persian empire. 

11. Peter the Great tlied 28lh January, 17i?o, and was 
iicceeded by the Czarina Catherine, formerly a Livonian 
iptive, but who possessed merit equal to her elevated silua- 
lon. His only son, Alexis Petrowitz, had been condeiim- 
td to lose his lifr for treason ; and the mode of his death 
which immeiliately followed iiis condemnation, is at tht^ mo 
ineut unknown. Russia owes to Peter the Great all those 
benchcial improvements which have nuscd her, within the 
period of a centuiv, fjom barbarism an<l obscin;'" * ' th' 
highest rank among the powers of Europe. 



LXVIl. 
\ \ir A or rni; i']<<i^hn>r> of bcir.vcr. and irrrriATrnK i;. 

lUROlE : 

Hum f]'- ^*.n OF Till. FIFTEE.VTII TO JUL KM) OF THl. 
SEVtNTEENTH CEKTIRY. 

1. V**!. have seen how muc!» literature and the science^ 
were indebted to the art of printing for their advancement 
and di-<('uunation towards the end of the tiltcenth century. 
(Sect. X.\.\IV. ^ 12.) From that period classical learning;, 
criticism, |>f)elry, and history, made a rapid propr« s^ in mo>i 
of the kinirdom"* of Euroj>e. Philosophy did not keep pace. 
The dogm Is of Aristotlo h.ul po-^sesgicn of the s<:'1k)o15 down 
n> the seventeenth ccnturv. and had enirraflcd them-( lve« 



SECT. 67. MODERN HISTORY. 311 

even on the doctrines of theology. It required a superior 

• geniii>to dissipate this mist of error, and break those fetters 
on all advancement in useful science ; and such was the 
great Bacon, Lord Verulam, the most profound philosopher, 
and perhaps the most universal genius that any age has pro- 
duced. We find in his works an estimate of the actual at- 
tainments in all the sciences, a catalogue of the desiderata 
in each department, and a detail of the methods best suited 
to prosecute improvement and new discoveries. In tine, 
we owe to Bacon the sure method of advancing in know- 
leilge by experiment and the observation of nature, instead 
of system and conjee ture. 

2. The philosophy of Bacon produced its effect only by 
slow degrees. Gassendi, though he exposed the doctrines 
of Aristotle, was still a theorist, and attem^ited to revive the 
atomic system of Epiciirus. Dcs Cartes followed in the 
same track, and reared a whimsical theory of the universe, 
produced, as ho supposed, by the fortuitous combination of 
atoms, moving in vortices through the immensity of space ; 
a theory recommended by the ingenuity with which it was 
supported, and its apparently solvirji:: m my of the phenomena 
of nature. Copernicus Irid. a century bclore, publi>lied his 
system of the planets, which, though contlemneil by the 
cliun h, was received by Des Cartes and the best philoso- 
pliers. 

J. Galileo, in 1009, constructed telescopes, (Sect. XXXI V. 

§ 5.) and discovered the satellites of the lari^er planets, and 

their motions, for which he was rewarded by imprisonment, 

n« a supporter of the Copernican heresy. Kepler invcstiga- 

I the laws which regulate the motions of the planets, and the 

iloiry between their distances from the sun and periodical 

>()ltilions. The discoveries in astronomy led to improve- 

* ments in navigation, and a great advancement of geometry 
jn all its branches. Napier, in 1611, abridged calculation by 
the invention of logarilluns. The Torricellian experiments 
determined the weight of the atmosphere. In 1616, Harvey 
discovered the circulation of tlie blood. 

4. The Uoyal Society, which originated from private meet- 
ings of the English philosophers, w.is incorporated by Charles 
II. in 1G62, and has greatly contributed to the advanrement 
of the sciences and useful arts. The Koyal Academy of 
Scie!ir«'s was instituted in 1666 by Lewis XIV. ; and similar 
institutions were founded in most of the countries of Europe; 
among which there is a communication of science, and a 
laudable emulation excited by the publication of their trans- 
I actions. 



312 MODERN HISTORY. PART II. 

[}. In the entl of the seventeenth century arose the immor- 
tal Newton, who, b^ exhausting the most important discove- 
ries of the laws of nature, Ikis rendorod it impossible lor 
pobtcritv U) eclipse his fame. He had discovered, beJore the 
uge of twenty-four, the theory of universal gravitation, a 
principle which solves the cliiof j»henomena of nature, and ' 
connects and regulates the whole ma«lHne of the universe. 
His theory of light and colours is the foundation of the whole 
science of optics, and hi* Princij)ia the basis and elements 
of all philosophy. 

6. Locke, the contemporary of Newton, successfully ap- 
plir-d Lord Bacon's mode of investigation to the study of the 
human mind ; and, utterly rejecting; the sy>tcms of llio old 
philosophei'SjPXamined the soul by attending to its operations. 
From the simple fact that all kno\vl( d-rc is progressive, and 
that an infiiit gains its ideas gradually linough the medium oJ 
its senses, he drew the general con( lu?ion, that there are no 
innate ideas in tlie miwd, but all are either immediate pen ep- 
tions conveyed by the senses, or acts of the mind rellectui'^ 
on those [jerception-* ; aconclu>ion which h;u» been obstinal' 
ly controverted, chielly by drawing from it false consequc! 
ees, but which hits never yet been ^hakcn. 

7. The progr<'SS of literature in the sixteenth and sever 
tcenth cenlurie;* was equally remarkable with that of gcienr*- 
and philosophy. Trissino was the first of the moderns wlni 
composed an epic poem in the l.uiguage of his country, 
VUalia liUrata da Goti, and the lirst Italian who wrote a 
regular tragedy, S 'a. Of much superior merit to tho 
epic po''m of Tn- ^ the Lusiad of the Portuguese Ca- 
iDoens, a work abounding in passaj^es of high poetic beaut\ 
.did displaying a -Mblimo iin igination. In the end f)f the six- 
rcenth century ^^pain pruduc* d the ArauKimi ol Jlrrill.i, .*in 
epic poem of gredt inequality of merit, but frequently exh 
biting novelty of figures and bold conception?. The subject- 
is a revolt of tlie Peruvians Jigainst the .':^paniards. 

I'. But the principal ejuc poems of this .age are the Ortan* 
do Furios ) of Ariosto, and the (nerusaUtnme Libcriita of 
Tasso : the former a work most irregular in its plan, most 
unconnected and desultory in its conduct, most extravagant i 
and absurd in the characters of its persons, but displaying al- 
ternately every excellence of poetry in the various depart- 
ments of the descriptive, comic, satiric, moral, and sublime. 
The Gientsalemmc of Tasso, of a regular plan and perfect 
polish in its structure, has been frecjuently brought in com- 
parison with the equally high-finished poem of the Jhlncid ; 

nor does the itaUon sulTcr rouch in the coDiparison. There 



SE'CT. 67. MODEnX IIISTORV. oj., 

is a romantic charm bolli in the incidents and characters of 
his poem, wliich must ever lender it a favourite with all 
readers of genuine taste. 

9. From the time of 'J'a^'io, the gcniu? of epic poetry lay 
dormant for a century, till the days of .Milton ; for the Fairy 
Q^ueen of Spenser is ratfier a romantic fdlegory than an epic 
poem. The Panuh'sc Lost, compared with the great poems 
of antiquity, is more irregular and le<s perfect as a whole 
than the Iliad, JEneid, and Odyi^sey, but exhibits in detached 
parts more of the sublime and beautiful than tliem all. It has 
l)een well remarked, tliat the inequality of this poem arises 
in a great measure from the nature of the s!i]»ject, of which 
*;ome parts are the most lofty that can enter into the human 
mind, and others could only have been supported by a labo- 
rious elegance and polish, which the author's genius could 
not stoop to bestow. 

10. Lyric poetry was cultivated in the sixteenth century, 
in Italy, France, and England, but with no high success The 
lesser poems of Ariosto, and Tasso have no tincture of the 
genius displayed in their greater works. Chiabrera is jx..- 
h;i})S the only lyric poet of this period that merits distinction. 
In France, Uonsard and Bellay imitated Petrarch with all his 
false wit, but without his paseion. Marot, however, in the 
iiahete and easy vein of his humour, is jtislly accounted the 
master of La Fontaine. In the beginning o( the seventeenth 
century, French versification received a considerable polish 
from the compositions of Kacan, and yet more from those of 
Malherbe : and towards the end of that century lyric poetry 
was cultivated with high success by La Farre, C'liapelle and 
I'arhaumont, Chaulieu, and Cresset. 

I 1 . The Knglish lyric poetry of the sixteenth century, of 
."5j)en>ier, Surrey, Harrington, Sydney, and even Sh;ik«})care, 
is harsh and inharrnonions ; nor is much iniprovomont dis- 
' rerniblc till the time of Cowley and Waller, 'i'he merit of 
Cowley as a lyric poet was too highly j)ri/.( d in his own age. 
and is under-rated in ours. With all h.is fdse wit, pedantry, 
and obscurity, he is oAen both sublime and pathetic in no 
moderltc degree. The lyric ode in the l!)ird book of the 
Uavidets has few parallels in the rngli>h 1 uiguage. As a 
prose writer, Cowley shines in that age with superior excel- 
lence. Waller is more polished and harmonious ihan any oi 
the j)receding or contcnaporary ])oets, but his wit is quaint, 
and his elevation too frequently bombast. 

12. Drvtlon, in the end of the seventeenth century, carried 
lyric j)oetry to it"^ highest perfection. Hi-; Ode on St. ^Ce- 
cilia's Day surpasses all tJie lyrif' compositions both of anii- 



314 MODERN nis'ionif. part u 

quity and moJeni times. He shines conspicuously as a sa 
tirist, possess'in^ the keen anil caustic wil, \vithout the indeli- i 
cacy of Juvenal or Horace. His versions I'rcin Chaucer and 
Bocacio are easy and spirited, and display a ha})py talent lor 
poetical narrative. His numerous dramatic pieces, thoui!;h ., 
exhibitiug both invention and poetic beauty, are deficient in J 
true passion, and in the just delineation of character. 

13. It was not till the end of the sixteenth century that il.' 
drama in Europe began to furnish a rational entertaimnenL 
At that period. Lope de Vega and Calderona in Spain, and 
Shiikspeare in England, produced those pieces, vihich, tljough 
irregular and stained with blemishes, are at this day tbe ad- 
miration of their countrymen. The Spanish pl^ys of that • 
age have been a rich mine for succeednig dramatists, both 
among the French, Italians, and English. The merits of 
Shakspcare arc familiar to every person of t;iste. Ignorant 
of the rules of his art, he is tiic pure child of nature, and 
thus exhiltits often her caprices and absurditien* ; b\;t tlicse 
are redeemed by the most transceudant beauties. The old j 
English drama is, with al! its irrC'jjularities, incomparably su- • 
pcrior to tlie modern, both in touching the passions and iu •. 
displaying just views of human character. The persons are 
more discriminated by various and appropj-iate features, and 
the nicer shades of nearly resembling characters arc tims 
more distinctly marker). The mixture of ihe comic and tra- 
ffic in the same plot, thougli condemned by modern practice, 
is a great source of pleasure in the pieces of Shakspeare and 
his contenjpiu'i'.rics ; nor is there any tbing in such a mixture, 
but whet is consonant to nature. To a person of true tiiste, 
it will he found oi'ten to h( ightcn, by contrast, the capitid 
emotion tj be excited. 

14. The comj)ositions for the French stage, in the end of 
the seventeenth century, are strictly conformable to dramatic 
rules, and many of those pieces are models of a correct and 
polished taste. The morality of the French drama of that 
age and the next is in general ])urer than ours ; but their 
pieces are deficient in tbe nice delineation of character, and 
in the power of exciting the passions. Corneille and Kacine 
brought the French tragedy to its highest elevation, as Mo- 
tiere the comedy. Corneilhi has more grandeur and sublirr.i- 
ty than his rival, who excels him in the tender and patheti . 
The comedies of Moliere, higldy anuisiug in the present tinje, 
were more particularly valuable in the age when they were 
written, and had a sensible effect in correcting its prevailing 
follies ; the pedantry of the ladies, the ignorance and quack- 
ery of the physicians, and the pride and arrogance of the 



SECT. 67. MODERN HISTORY. 315 

French noljlessc. The last of the eminent dramatists who 
fidorned France in the seventeenth century, was the elder 
Crebillon, who drew manv sublime and impassioned scenes 
from the source of terror ; and who, in all his works, was as 
eminently the friend of virtue as his worthless son has been 
the pander of vice. 

15. Tlie most eminent historians of the sixteenth centiiry 
are, De Thou, Davila, and Machiavel. De Thou has written 
the annals of his own time, irom 1545 to 1G07, with great 
judgment, and in most elegant Latin composition. The his- 
tory of Davila, the annals of the Civil VV\ars of France in the 
time of Ihe Leagues, though the work of a partisan, is com- 
posed with no common degree of candour and impartiality. 
Machiavel wrote, in the beginning of the sixteenth century, 
the History of Florence, of which the style is classical and 
the matter well arranged, but too much interrupted by reflec- 
tions and political discussions. In the seventeenth century. 
Bentivoglio composed his History of the Civil Wars of Flan- 
ders, with the most accurate knowledge of his subject, per- 
spicuity of narrative, and eloquence of style. Among the 
English historians in the beginning of that period, Rawleigh 
is the mo?t difctinguished, though his History of the World is, 
in point of ^tyle, inferior to the judgment shewn in the ar- 
rangement of the matter. In the latter part of the seven- 
teenth century. Clarendon's History of the. Kcbellion is a 
work of the highest merit, whether we consider the authen- 
ticity of its facts, th(* deep knowledge of human nature dis- 
played in the delineation of the ciiaracters, or the grave and 
manly elocpience of the style. If, in the opposition of po- 
litical opinions, he has been deemed too [jartial in the de- 
f.-nce of his Sovereign, even his adversaries have admitted 
liis perfect integrity, and entire conviction of the rectitude 
of tlie cause which he supports. 



Continuation of Tyller^s Elements of General History from 
the close of ihe- seventeenth ceuturij to the general Peace in 
Europe, Jl. D. 1815. 



CHAPTER I. 

HISTORY OF GREAT BRITAIN FROM THE REV0LUTIO,\ TO THE 
BATTLE OF WATERLOO, 



SECTION 1, 



AFFAIRS OF ENGLAND. 

HE history of nations scarcely furnishes an instance of 
a Revolution, so important, in its nature and consequences, as 
that which took place in England in the year 1-688, effected 
with so little commotion and violence. The government of 
the Hoisc of Ste\v;irt, which had held the crown for eighty- 
live years, in four successive reigns, had been, generally, 
turbulent imd unfortunate. None of those princes v/ere con- 
temptible in talents, but it was their fortune to hold the I 
British sceptre at a period when European nations were mak- 1 
ing a rapid progress in philosophy and the liberal arts, and 
adv^ancing to correct views of the nature and end of civil 
government. The Stewart princes entertained notions of the 
inherent authority of royal prerogative, and the indefeasible 
rights of kings, hardly compatible with the sentiments of the 
age, and still less of the nation in which Divine Providence 
had called them to reign. Their views of government were 
not more arbitrary than those of their illustrious predecessors 
of the House of Tudor, particularly Henry VHI. and Ehza- 
]selh ; but, on these subjects, the minds of men had under- i 
gone a material change. The principles of religious liberty,! 
having become generally established both in England jindj 
Scotlind, produced, in the minds of those sovereigns, a 
strong aversion to a large portion of their subjects by whom 
those principles were firmly maintained. A Revolution be- 
came indispensible, and the Prince of Orange, not less by 
the lustre of his character than by his alliance with Mary, 



SECf. 1. MODERN HISTORY, 317 

eldest daughter of the reigning monarch, was viewed by all 
orders of men as the suitable person to become his success- 
sor. 

During the greater part of the reign of William III, the 
nation was involved in many active wars. The principal 
cause of which was the rast power of Lewis XIV, who ap- 
peared to be able, and was certainly disposed, to subject all 
the neighbouring countries to the dominion of France. To 
reduce that alarming power was the leading object of Wil- 
liam's reign ; and his efforts were attended with unexpected 
success. This prince was almost an enthusiast on the sub- 
ject of the balance of power. This principle of security for 
European Powers, devised by the great Henry IV. of France, 
had now just become understood, and its importance was 
generally felt. William contemplated this principle of pub- 
lie safety with great ardour, and was ready to encounter any 
danger to pr(»vent its violation. Ilis wars required his pre 
sence on the continent, and he was absent from his new do- 
minions a considerable part of his reign. Yet he had an able 
ministry, and the tranquillity of the nation was preserved. 
The war was carried on with vigour and success, though with- 
out any distinguished actions, and the power of France was 
gradually reduced. This war was terminated by the peace 
of Ryswick in 1697. 

In the year 1700 the throne of Spain became vacant by 
the death of Charles 11, who bequeathed his crown to Phihp, 
grandson of the king of France. Charles, brother of the 
emperor of Germany, immediately appeared as a cdtaipeti- 
tor for the crown ; and, to prevent the union of France and 
Spain in one family, England, Holland, and the imperial 
Court warmly espoused his cause. While great preparations 
were made for the approaching conflict, William was sudden- 
ly removed by death, in 1702, and was succeeded by Anne, 
second daughter of the late king James. His Queen and 
partner in the throne, Mary, died in 1694. William possessed 
a vigorous mind, a gravity of deportment, was an able war- 
rior, and did honour to the British crown. The unfortunate 
James II. died in France in 1701, and the French court ac- 
knowledged his son as king of Great Britain : an event which 
greatly exasperated the British nation, and hastened the com- 
mencement of the Avar. 

The reign of William and Mary is an important epoch in 
the English history. At their accession, the constitution be- 
came established. By the new coronation oath the great pri- 
vileges of civil liberty are confirmed to the subject, with the 
security of the Protestant religion, which the monarch must 

28 



"^Mj >ivji)tK.N HIS 1 o;. I . • fi i , • 

always profesF. Tlie r»a(ion;;I (le:bt conmienrcd iii {\\\^ vcv^u, ai 
tlu' ('lose of which it .iinouiitfil to M,UC»0,lK.)U. — Hy an act ot' 
tfio kiiii; Hiid parliartient, noar the conclusion of this reign, tlii'. 
«tirression to the crown, afirr the prinre^s Annr who had r»i) 
children, was settled on tlie princess Sophia of the Mouse ot 
Hanover arnl her heirs. She wa:* grand-daughter of James I. 
The reii;n of Q,ueen Anne is on«' oC the mo«it illustrious in 
the Hnli-h annals. 'J'he war with France was pro?e»*uted 
with preat vi'^oiir, unJer the command of the Duke of Marl- 
boron j;h, the t'lrst i;onf*ral of th*' au;»'. The successful battles 
oi F.lonheim, Harnillies, Oudenarde, and AIalpl;»quet raised 
the reputation ot the Brili;ih arms an<l the power of the nation 
to a heiifht thev had rn'ver hetore attained. The benefit ot 
ihese vi( tories was balant^ed, in some mejLsure, by severe 
looses in Spain antl some of the colonics, rolitical divisions 
also arose in the British y;ov^rnment, which seemed to save 
(lie hou.-e of l'»oijrbon from that hnmiliatioM to which it was 
hasteninrr. The parties of Whij^ ami Tory were at their 
hciujht in this reii<!i. Tho war had been conducted hy the 
Whi2:s : hut the 'i'ori**s, jiavini; succectled in displacinj; them 
Irom the miru'-tiy, readily v»ccedt'd to proposals for j)eace, 
Aviiich was concluded by the treaty of Utre<'ht in P 13, Hy 
Thi> peace considerable additions to her colonial possessions. 
Avpre gamed by (ireat Hritaiji. — In I7(m] the Act of Union wa^ 
passed, which connecte«l Kngland and Scotland in one kins- 
,loin, — This reiirn !« the «rh>rv of Kmrli*^!! literature. Newton. 
(.o.k.\ Addi-it)n. >wiit, ant! mmiy other* of the tii-st literarv 
;,u lit, lived at this time. — "The good t^ueen Anne,'' as sh« 
n;i- been JM^ilv c.db'<l, died in 1714. and was succeeded by 
Cieorge, Kb'ctor of I lanovor, who^e mrther, th^ princes^; So- 
phia, had diet! a little before the Queen. 

(ieor'jc I. was a wi-e an«l g«iod monarrh, biit hi.» < ou'^tiuit 
.iltachmont to his ('ermaii dominions inv(dved lum in all tJM 
'omplicateil politics of the continental courts, and drew from 
the nation iminer.-;*^ suppli*^'^ for the -iipport of his hereditary 
Klot.torate. Being ab.-.inl iVom his ];ininlom the greater pai • 
of the lime, he never po.ssessed that ile^ree of popiilarit\ . 
whicli hv might havr otherwise o}»lai:ied. The nnti(»n was 
!iot involved in any exteufci\e war during his reign. — In 1717, 
inocul.ition tor the small-pox was introduced in f^ngland 
from Turkev, bv I-ady .M. ^V. Montagu, and soon extemJrtI 
to the neighbouring countries. The king died -ii.l'^>ilv in 
17'27 and was siicceeded by his only son. 

(jleorge U. He wrv an active, intelliir'^nt, and judii i • 
prince, anxious to promote the true interests of the natiu.i, 
Uut, unhaT»j)ily, iuhtiitiu^ tVom his father an undue predilec- 



^ECT. 1. MODERN HISTORY. 319 

tion for his German dominions. In consequence of theis 
continental connexions, the nation u'lis ot^ten involved in par- 
tial wars, d'.iring hii reign. An extensive war iij>on the con- 
tinent "was concluded by tlie peace ot'AiK-la-Chapelle, in 174K. 

'l'!:e rebellion in Scotland, in 1745, gave n^orc real and 
just disquiet to the nalion, than those foreign wars which so 
strongly affected the mind of the Sovereign. — In this reiirn, 
the Kn-^lish commerce was greatly extended, and the spirit 
of discovery seemed to lay 0[)en all countries to the en- 
terprise of the merchant. — The Colonies of North America. 
:i.bout thi^ time, began to be estimated in their commercial 
and [jolitical importance, and to excite the attention of the 
courts of Europe. The encroachment of the P'rench mili- 
tary posts ui)on the Colonies of Great Britain occasioned the 
war of 1755, which raged with violence in both hemisplieres. 
The most memorable event of which was the battle of Que- 
bec and the reduction of Canada, by Gtn. Wolt'e, in 1759. 
The following year was distinguished by the death of the 
king and accession of his grandson. 

(ieorge 111. His iifign has been the longest as well as the 
mo^t eventful and important in the history of Britain. In no 
other period has the nation made such mighty efforts, and ne- 
ter did tlie firmness and recources of any people, appear, to 
ach a degree, inexhaustible. — An uidiappy course of policy 
pursued by the ministry towards the American Colonies drove 
them to arms in 1775, in opposition to the measures of the 
British parliament. Many of these Colonies, from the pe- 
culiar clnracter of the first Mantel's, from the unusual na- 
ture of their institutions, and thp spiiit of enterprise with 
which t^^ settlers had ever been distinguished, were f.ir 
irom that decree o{ dependence on the parent country which 
usually marks the character of colonies, and were not pre- 
pared tor that kind of treatment which is often ])roper and 
nt'ressary with colonial sfttlem'^nts. The American arras, 
under the guidance of Washington, the first general of the 
Mffc, were succci^^ful, and France and Ibdland, forming an al 
li^tice with the American goNernment, took part in the war 
Tliio. distressing conflict was closed in 1783, by a peace, in 
whiih Great Britain acknowledged the iiidependenre of the 
' 'nifed States, and laid the foundation of a rising empire, to 
perhaps, as great, by the blessing of Heaven, as the pa 
;enl stale. — Thouiih the American war diminished the lb 
reign possessions of Kugland, and increased her public debt, 
-he lost nothing in the contest with other powers, her cum 
merce and resources were constantiv extending, while the 
snirJt <<r fb*^ :in(ir>n ;ipil tb<' fruTirl,.^ ,,r \\^^^ fo; »>rnni Mit re- 



I* 



380 MODERN HISTORY. CHAT. I 

inainc<l unbroken. The commerce of the Americans wa** 
not less profitable to Great Hiitain, after their iinleperMlcnce, 
tlian before. — At the beginning of the American war, the na- 
lional debt amounted to about 130,000,000 ; at its close it 
had risen to 180,000,000. During this period, the govern- 
ment w.'bJ conducted by u mini-try, much less wise ami able, 
than in any otlier part of this long reign. — In 1779, Capt. 
.fames Cook, the most adventurous of all Kngli^h navigators, 
\\;»- killed by t!ie natives of an island in the South Sea. 

In the year 17C9, commcnf ed tlie French Revolution, 
>vhich, iFi i(^ progress and cfl'ects, has been the greatest 
««ronrge expericncctl by tiie nations of Kurope, since the rise 
of the modern kingdoms. The gener.d promulgation of ir- 
religious sentiments, which had long been spreading, the na- 
tural effert- of the great corruption of the Catholit: and some 
of the Kt fornu'd Churches, had graduidl\ prepared tiie niiud« 
of men for all those false notions of monds and civil govern- 
ment, which were the true cause of the excesses and deso- 
l.»lion«< of tliis di^^astrotis period. Froni 17^9, to 1C16, Eu- 
rope endured more in the destruction of human lives and in 
individual suiTering, than in any other e«junl portion of time 
j^ince it became inhabitotl. The tyranny and conquests ol 
France have been opposed, in their turn, by every christian 
state. Hut Creat Britain is the only one that Iwl-j done thi^ 
in a steady und<'viating course, never mistaking the rcid de- 
signs of her enemy, never deceived by his crart, nor awed 
by his power. Divine Providence had singularly prepared 
that nation to sustain the shock which ptit in jeopardy the 
governnaents and institutions of the ciMJi/ed world. Her 
rommcrce exceeded thai of any former jurind or of nny 
other country, her active wealth was proportionably great. 
her maritime lorcc the greatest ever posscs«ejl by any one 
power, the nation w.v well united at home and abroad, and, 
at the head of the ^'ovrrnnu nt, was William Pitt, the ablest 
statesman oi' ancienl or modern tim<is. While ihe armies ol 
France were encountered by various powers on the confl- 
uent, Iho elforts of (ireat Pritain were made, principally, at 
sea. Witliout ever losing an important naval actitm, her 
threat victories over France and her allies, under the com- 
uumd of AdmiiaU Howe, .larvis, Duncan ; and, especially, 
ihc battles of the Nile, CopenhaircB, and 'J'r.ifa^r, fought 
by the great Nelson, so effectuall> broke the nav;d power of 
her enemies, as to leaN e them wludly unable to eiirountet 
the British lleets. or proti ct their own commerce on tin 
seas. One of the most important acts of Mr. Pitt's ndmini-- 
t ration was the union of Ireland with Great Britain, in l?Ol 



By thip union the two kingdoms becnmc consoliilalcd into one 
empiro, to tiic grcr\t advantage of each. — The t^ovcmrrientof 
France, having triumphed over the most of their enemies on 
the continent, m ide peace with (ireat Britain, on equ.il 
terms, concluded at Amiei>f in ISOl. Though the peac* 
did not promise a long duration to the minds of thinking 
men, it produced great rejoicing; in the Brili«h nation. The 
leader of France had found it unprofitable to contend with 
England, his army of Egypt having been etTeciually beaten 
by Gen. Abercromby, in the beginning of 1801, and lie him- 
self, by Sir Sidney Smith, at the siege of Acre in Syria, in 
1 799. ' 

The war of Great Britain with the Emperor of France was 
not less sanguinary, lasting, and eventful, than that wiih the 
leaders of the Revolution. Buonaparte having possessed 
hirasell ol uidimiled powijr, previous to the treaty of Amiens, 
there w:is no reasonable prospect that he would rest in the 
ralrn of peace. The projects of hi-: umbition continually 
opening to view, and his armies undiininisiietl, Great I>rit;iin 
saw that, while she was hazarding her security and indepcn 
dence, she gained nothinii, by the peace. War recommen 
ced in IC03, and one of ils liist mea-^ures was the most formi- 
dable preparations on the part of France for the invasion of 
England. The nation \vas alnnjied, but all hearts were unit- 
••d for the defence, and tlic design, though uf" boasteil expec 
tation, was relinquished. The eftoits of the enemy wtrc 
then directed a'^ainst tlie English commen e. The design- 
was to exclude il from other countries and thus destroy the 
national revenue. The attempt was u holly abortive! — In 
18()o, the great naval victory of Tral'algar completed the rniii 
c»f the maritime foioe of France ami Spain. The greatest 
force was employed in this action of any one mentioned iu 
naval history. The conllict w.ls terrible, but the victory was 
rompleto, tiiough purchased by the lite of Nelson, the first of 
naval heroes. A day of public Thanksgiving was observed 
through GreatBritain lor the victory. 

In 18u6, the Cape of (Jood Hope ua-> ukcii l.} a Bnlisl) 
force ; but an attempt on Buenos Ayres was unsuccesiful. — 
The same year was distinguished by the death of Mr. Pitt, in 
the 17th year of his age. The year following a detaclinuMit 
of the navy went and took pos>e*»sion of the Danish fleet, 
which w;t*< broug!it from Copenhagen to F.ngl and to firevent 
il f ' " iig into the hands of the French. 'I'he royal houstr 
of i I removed this year from Lisbon to Br.izil, sailing 

under the convoy wf an English llect. Fy another licet the 
king of N iples was protected on the Islaiid of Sicily, — In 



S22 JIODERK HISTORY. CMaP. 1. 

the year 180B, th«' populaUon of Spain ami Torlugal rose in 
opposition t(» tlu opprcj'Jiions of Franc*' . They were soon 
jL'ieistf't' i<v a liI•iti^h army, whidi never left that lielpU»«s peo- 
ple till tlir* !'ion<:h ivere driven out of Krance in the beginning 
of 1811. Sir Arthur VVellesley went with the lirst army to 
Sp.iiri and that country hecauie the theatre of the most ol 
th(>-«! great tKitions wliich plaro liim ab()\e all the generals ol 
thi-^ martial age. — A powerful military expedition sent to Hol- 
liuul m lcU)9, wa.s un-»ucces.«-ful. Il lelurneil, havini; acrom- 
])li«ihcd little or nothing, i'ho principal scene o! the war Irom 
this time, on the part of Kngland, was in Spain antl Portugal. 
And though the vveiii;ht of the conthrt f« 11 j»rinripally on the 
lintish army, it ua^ su^tiuned with citiisuiiiinate valour ami 
perseverance. 

An unfortunnte war conunenct'd hetwotn (ireat Hntam 
and tlie United Slates in the suniuier ol \iA\i, occasioned l»y 
ihe encroachments of the fomier upon the commercial rights 
of the latter, at a time when the American go\ernment were 
loo much inclined to appear among the enemies of Britain. 
I'his war, which produced no remarkable events except se- 
\eral conthcts in which the American navy accjuired great 
honour, was rioted by the treaty of (jhent, Dec. liil-l. 

At the dethronement of Huonapart« and the restoration of 
the Hou«e of Bourbon in 181 1, peace wa^ restored between 
<Jreat l»ritain and France. At the return of the banished 
rmperor, in .^Ia^(■h 101'), and lus resumption of the imperial 
V>ower, the Congress of the allied powers, who had continued 
Mieir sf^-inn from the late peace, issued a spirited declaration 
ugain»t him, ami the dilTerent court-* resolved on the most 
vis;orouM renewal of the war. Lord Wellington w;is sent t- 
Flanders with a very powerful army. Buonaparte, accord- 
iti'j; iO his accustomed manner, haslrneil to encounter a part 
of hi«i enemies, before the respective armies had become unit- 
<5d. A Brussiin irmv un«ler Blucherand that of \N ellingt »n 
were all that had arrived at the scat of war. 'Jlie Kmperor 
commenced hostilities by a violent attack on the Prussiims 
on the 1 "jth of June. On the following day there was a san- 
ji^uinarv conflict between the two armies, in w hich the French 
obtained the advantage. As the Prussians retired, the Kmpe- 
ror marched to encoonter the army of W»'llington previous 
to its expected junction w ith that of lihuher. This brought 
«n the battle of Waterloo, June 18th, the la-st scene of the 
great Tragedy of twenty-six years. 'J'he Frcn< ' 

amounted to about FiD.dOO men ; tlie Knglish, lu * ^ 

Dutch and German auxiliaries", to about 80,(K)0. Never was 
3 battle fought by better troops, more skilful commanders, 



SECT. ?. MODERN HISTORY. 323 

or more determined valour. The British General stood on 
the defensive, receivins^nnd repelling the incessant attacks of 
the enemy, without leaving his important position. A great 
train of artillery, on both sides, served in the best manner, 
produced a terrible carnage. Towards evening the Prussian 
army appeared at a distance, having marched with great dih- 
gence, through the day, for the relief of their allies. The 
French Leader perceived the crisis, and placing himself at 
the head of his guards, made a desperate assault upon the 
British line. With equal valour and skill he was met by the 
Englisli General, «t the head of his best troops, and compel- 
led to retire. The fire of the French artillery had slackened 
considerably, and Wellington ordered an advance of his 
whole line. The command was obeyed with alacrity, and 
the whole of the enemy's force that survived commenced a 
retreat. The British army wai* too much reduced and ex- 
hausted to follow them far, the Prussians commenced a suc- 
cessful pursuit, the French army became totally routed and 
irrecoverably broken. The British army lost about lJ,t>00 
men ; the French, in this battle and the action of the IGth, 
not less than 10,000. The battle of Waterloo closed the pub- 
lic career of Buonaparte, restored Louis Will, to hi"< throue, 
:»nd g-ave peace to Europe. 



bECTlON II. 

SKETCHES OF THE 1.ATL HISTORY OK SCOTLAND. 

I'm. Scottish nation always felt an attachment to the ro\ - 
al house of Stewart, as it belonged to their own cotmtrv. 
'i'he atBictions antl tragical end of Mary their celebrated 
Queen, the mother of Jam:\s who united the two crowns, 
with all her faults, endeared her posterity to their alVections. 
JStill, the iScotch, generally, actuated by a strong attachment 
to the reformed religion, were well pleased with the Revolu- 
tion, and rejoiced in the accession of the Prinre of Orange. 
No people in Euroi)e had a stronger aversion to popery than 
the inhabitants of Scotland, and the irreconcileal>l(» enmity 
of that prince to the king of France, the great pillar of the 
papal power, induced them to acquiesce with cheerfulness in 
his possession of the crown. Some of the Highland chief- 
fains always favoured the caiuse of James, f)ut they were un- 
able to make head against the power and vigilance of Wil- 
liam's goverDmcnt.-^The government of Scolluud continued 



o24 MODERN HisToay. Chap, il- 

in its accustomed course, the parliament was regularly con- 
vened, at the head of which was the Chnncellor, appointed 
by the king. — All the Stewart monarchs laboured to reduce 
the Church of Scotland to tiie form of the church of Eng- 
land, but without success. The Presbyterian form of church 
government, established by Knox and the other Scotch Re- 
formers, has remained, with very little alteration to the pre- 
sent time. 

The union of the two kingdoms, in 1706, relieving Scot- 
land from the burden of a separate government, procuring 
for them a suitable representation in the united parliament, 
and a gradual uniformity of municipal laws, has been highly 
advantageous to the kingdom. From that event, the agricul- 
ture, manufactures, and commerce of the country have been 
j^onslantly increasing, to the present time. The people, in- 
clined to the habits of domestic life, steady and industrious, 
are well calculated for manufacturers, and they have greatly 
excelled in their respective arts. Such is tlie facility and 
elegance with which some of these are performed, that some 
of their cotton fabrics have been sent to India, the natural 
country of cotton, and sold at a good profit. Their agricul- 
ture, which was at a low state at the time of the union, is now 
superior to most, and, probably, equal to that of any country 
in Europe. 

The family of James II, having, always, some firm ad- 
herents in the north of Scotland, his son the Pretender was 
enrnestl}' solicited by the enemies of Great Britain, during 
the war of 1745, to make a diversion in their favour, by ex- 
citing a rebellion in that kingdom. He, accordingly, sent his 
eldest son, Charles, who sailed from France, with a few 
^Friends and adventurers, in July of that year, and, after sus- 
taining some losses on his voyage, landed in safety in the 
west of Scotland. The king and the best of his army were 
at that time in Holland, engaged in the vigorous prosecution 
of the war. After some partial successes, by which the par- 
ty of the young Pretender was considerably increased, he 
encountered his enemies in the battle of Preston-Pans, which 
issued in a complete victory in his favour. As a consequence 
of this success, the city of Edinburgh and a great part of the 
kingdom, excepting the military fortresses, which he was not 
prepared to reduce, submitted to his arms. The Court of 
London was now thoroughly roused, and sent a well appoint- 
ed army, in the spring of the following year, under the com- 
mand of the king's son, the Duke of Cumberland, already 
distinguished as a military commander, to suppress the re- 
bellion in Scotland. At the approach of the English army. 



SECT. 3. MODERN HISTORY. 32"5 

the party of the Pretender, though he was not destitute of 
abihties for the enterprise, seem to have lost their previous 
discretion and energy, and, at the sanguinary battle of Cullo- 
den, in April 174G, his army of 4000 men, possessed of great 
personal courage and warmly attached to his interests, were 
totally ruined. In the action and massacres which followed, 
as no principles of justice or humanity appeared to restrain 
the victors, the most of his soldiers, with many others not 
found in arms, were put to death. The unhappy prince 
wandered several months, a helpless fugitive, and though a 
great price was set upon his head, such was the fidelity of his 
Highland friends, he was never betrayed. He at length em- 
barked in disguise, and arrived safely in France. Though 
this unhappy enterprise produced much distress in Scotland, 
it terminated the hopes of the Stewart line, consolidated the 
union, strengthened the friendship, and ultimately, increased 
the prosperity of the tAvo kingdoms. 

Scotland, during the last century, produced many learned 
men, of the first eminence, in the various departments of 
science. Her Universities have long been eminently distin- 
guished. Her most illustrious historians, Robertson and 
Hume, may justly be pronounced the first historians of mod- 
ern times. — In the British armies, the soldiers of Scotland 
have long been noted for their valour. The battle of Que- 
bec, one of the most important won by the British arms in 
the last century, was gained, almost entirely, by the energy 
of the Highlanders. In the late sanguinary conflict, which 
has given peace to the world, their martial prowess has been 
no less conspicuous. 



SECTION III. 

SKETCHES OF IRELAND. 

While the most of the northern countries of Europe adopt 
ed the principles of the Reformation, in the sixteenth centu- 
ry, the principal part of the people of Ireland, through the 
influence of various causes, continued firmly attached to the 
rites and doctrines of the Church of Rome. And though the 
Reformation was firmly established in England by Henry 
VIII, and Edward VI ; Ireland never cordially acquiesced 
in the changes made by the government, but merely submit- 
ted as a conquered people. Their religious attachments 
afforded a constant opportunity for the intrigues of the court 



326 MODERN HISTORV. CHAP. I- 

of Rome and the governments of Spain anii France, between 
whom and the government of England there were almcfst 
constant hostilities for nearly a century. The Irish Catholics 
sjare o-reat disquiet to ElizaUeth and James I, who were un- 
der the necessity of maintaining a strong military force in 
the country, and suppressing many rebellions. The forfeited 
lands which, on those occasions, were resumed by the crown, 
are said to have exceeded, in those two reigns, half a million 
of acres. The most of them were disposed of to emisrrants 
from Scotland, who were protestants, and thus peopled the 
greater part of the northern province of Ulster. 

The resentment of the Catholics, occasioned by these ex- 
tensive attainders, broke out with great violence in the time 
of the civil wars of England, when a plot was formed for a 
massacre of all the protestants in the kingdom. In 1641 
many thousands were put to death, but tranquillity was, at 
length, restored. 

Afler the Revolution, and the establishment of the Prince of 
Orange in Engl md, the ill-fated James went from France to 
Ireland, where he had the cordial attachment of more than 
three-fourths of the kin;!;dom. And had he possessed a vigr ' 
our of mind equal to his circumstances, this support might 
have enabled him to rer.over }jis crown. His fortunes were 
brought to the issue of wnr in the battle of Boyne, -hily 1 C90; 
in which William and James were each at the head of an 
arm}'- of about 80,000 men, seconded by able commanders. 

Though the Irish army had the advantage in position, and i 
were, perhaps, equal in bravery ; the English were animated / 
})y the courage and militarj'^ skill of their monarch, and gained 1 
a complete victory. The personal efforts of James, during 
the action, were feeble, and, after his defeat, he soon fled to 
France. Sevei^al strong places still held out against the vic- 
torious monarch, but that sagacious prince adopted mild 
measures, as the most likely to insure the perminent tran- 
quillity of the country. The Catholics held the strong tower 
of Limeric, a considerable time, against a regular siege by 
the British army. The town, at length, capitulated, on con- 
dition that all the Catholics of the kingdom should enjoy the i 
free exercise of their religion. This event terminated their/ 
wars, which had often aiflicted and almost desolated the Isl- 
and, for more than a century. 

The government was similur to that of England. A par- 
liament, with a lord Lieutenant appointed by the king, as a 
representative of his person and authority. In a long period 
cf internal tranquillity, Ireland has been prosperous, and has 
increased, very much, in population and wealth, in agricul- 



Jure and commerce. Her linen manufacture is celebTated 
nrougi the commercial world. In learning and the arts 
Jreiand 18 honourably distinguished. 

The intrigues and poison of the French Revolution having 
extenued to all the civihzed world, f^w countries were more 
deeply aflected with their baneful influence than Ireland 
While the seeds ol irreligion and revolution were planted in 
.he breasts of a great portion of the people, the secret Socie- 
ty ot United Irishmen arose, to inflame the spirit of discon- 
tent, to impart system to its designs, and energy to its effort. 
1 his society maintained a correspondence wi{h the govern- 
inentof 1^ ranee, and had the assistance of their experfence in 
organizing the.r measures. The design of the leaders was 
no less than to effect a separation from Great Britain, and 
.Jorrn a dose connexion .with France^ Neap t^ie end of the 
year 1 /96, a powerful fleet, conveying a strong land force 
escaped from Brest, having been blockaded b^ an English 
lieet a considerable time, for the purpose of aidino- an in* ur- 
rection in Ireland. The fleet was dispersed by s?orm and 
the expedition proved abortive. A second attempt, with a 
strong force, was defeated by the memorable victory of Ad- 
.miral Duncan over the Dutch fleet, which sailed from the 
r r.,.xel in October 1797. In the summer of 1798, the spirit 
of revolution had risen to such a height, that several counties 
were in a state of insurrection. Another attempt at co-oper- 
a ion by a fleet from France, was defeated by a naval victory 
obtained by Admiral Warren. Lord Cornwallis was ap- 
pointed lord Lieutenant, and took the command of the 
forces of the government. Various actions were foudU with 
the insurgents, and many lives were lost. At length, die vi- 
ilance and energy of the government, scconded^by the dit 
couragement of the insurgents respecting foreign aid, reduc- 
ed them to suDmission and restored the public tranquillity. A 
number of the insurgents were brought to public punishment 
and many more emigrated to America.^The most of the 
rish emigrants m this country, who are very numerous in 
the middle and western states, are the Scotch-Irish, from the 
north of Ireland, descendants of the Scotch who settled there 
in the reigns of Elizabeth a.id James I. The genuine Irish 
are mostly cathohcs, and emigrate but little. The names 
|, beginmng with Mac, are of Scotch origin. 

The Act of Union, the flivourite object of Mr. Pitt which 
went into operation January 1801, made Ireland an integra 
part of the British Empire, and laid the best foundatio/fo ' 
Its future prosperity. 



328 MODERN HISTORY. CHAP. H 

CHAPTER 11. 

HISTORY OF IRAKCE FROM THF. REIGN OF LOL'IS XIV 

IlrsTORY furnishes n«account of the reign^ of two kings, 
in succession of equal length with those of Lotiis XIV. and 
XV. The ordinary length of the reigns of kings is from IC 
to 20 years. The former of these reigned 72 years, the lat- 
ter 59. 

The reign of Louis XIV, a period of great splendour t • 
France, was singularly unfortunate towards its close. Th> 
war of twelve years, closed hy the peace of Utrecht in 171 
was an almost uninlerruj)ted scries of misfortunes to thiu 
kingdom. To complete the alllictions of the aged monarch, 
his only son, the Dai^phii],of France, died, suddenly, in 1711. 
and the Duke ^f^Hurgundy, fhe eid'Atjion of the Dauphin, 
in the following year. This latter left a son, a sickly infant, 
now the heir to the crown. These gloomy scenes were, how- 
ever relieved by several providential events, wholly unex- 
pected, and by some successes of the French arms, which 
enabled the king to conclude the war without dishonour. At 
his death, ii\ 17ir>, he was succeeded by his great-grandson 
Louis XV, at live years of age. The Duke of Orleans, neph- 
ew of the late king, assumed the regency aad conducted the 
affairs of tlie government till the time the king was declared 
of age in 1723. 

The Regent governed the kingdom with energy and pru- 
dence, yet, being a man of dissolute manners, the French 
Court WiLS more corrupt during tlie time of his regency, than 
at any other period of the monarchy. This corrui)tion ol 
manners led, unavoidably, to many acts of oppression and 
injustice in the government. At this period, the famous spe- 
culation, called the ]\Ii58issippi Scheme, is said to have ruined 
more than 10(),00U taniilies in P>ancr. 

The young monarch, having taken the government into 
his own hands, appointed Cardinal Fleury, happily for him- 
self and his people, h'\< prime minir^ter. The Cardintd's sys- 
tem of policy was wh<dly pacilic, and ihc natioii enjoyed the 
blessings of peace during the greater part of his administra- y 
tii)n. Tho\i2;h called to guide the French councils at the age / 
of 70, he held his place and inlbience 20 years, till his ^ 
death. — The nation wits involved in war for the support of " 
the claim of Stanislaus, the king's f ither-in-law, to the crown * 
of PoLnd, which terminated honourably f'>r France. The t 
different cLiimants to the crown of the German Empire, in 
1740, drew the kingdom into a war in which her armies 



SECT. I. MODERN HISTORY. 329 

exhibiteil great military skill and valour. This contest in- 
volved both France and England, and, from allies to the 
contending powers, they became, in 1744, principals in the 
war. The French armies were led, principally, by Marshal 
Saxe, one of the ablest generals the nation has produced. 
At the severe battle of Fontenoy, he deieated a large army 
of British, Hanoverians, Austrians, and Dutch, connnanded 
by the Duke of Cumberland. — This was the first European 
war that extended, to any considercd^le degree, to North 
America : it was distinguished by the capture of the Island 
of Cape Breton, which was retained by Great Britain at the 
peace. The treaty of Aix la Chape lie, in 1748, produced a 
o-eneral peace, which, however, was of short duration. 

The war of 1755, between France and England, has been 
noticed in our "sketch of the English history. AtU-r the peace 
of 17G3, tho most memorable events occurring in tb.is reign 
are the conquest of Corsica, at a great expense of men and 
money, and the expulsion of the Jesuits from the kingdom. 
Tliat troublesome and dangerous order was suppressed 
through France. 

The king died in 1774, of the small-pox. In the latter 
part of hisreign he became very prolligatc and dissolute, 
neglecting, very much, tlie duties of government and the 
true interests of his people. These errors and vices involvl 
ed him in a variety of disputes with his Farliaments, asortot 
legislative bodies ludd in the principal French pru\inces, in 
f which the king conducted with much injustice and indecision, 
thus irritating, withoutfiubduinglhc oppositionrfic encounter- 
ed. The controversy thus begim, between |lie crown and 
the parliaments, continued in the next reign, and became one 
of the principal causes of the Revolution. — In 1757, an ob- 
scure person, of the name of Damien, made an attempt to 
assassinate the king, and was i)ut to death by torture, with 
a cruelty winch would have disgraced the most barbarous 
age. 

Louis was succeeded by his grandson Louis XVI, a prince 
of amiable character, but wholly unqualitied to encounter tho 
tempest which was evidently rising in France, and which, 
piihaps, would have overwhtdmed any monarch of the race 
of Clovis. The long wars of Louis XIV. had left upon the 
nation a heavy load of debt. The profusion of the next 
reign, with the ill management ol the finances, had increased 
the public debt, and the people were severely burdened with 
oppressive and unequal taxes. — The connexion formed by 
France with America, during the period of our Revolution, 
for the sake of weakening the British empire, had created. 

29 



330 MOULRN IIISTORV. CHAP. II. 

in tlie army and the nation, sentiments of civil liberty and 
republican institutions, most dangerous to the existence of 
the monarchy, and wholly unsuited to the genius of that ca- 
pricious people. 

These and various other concurrent causes produced tlie 
French Revolution ; an event more disastrous and afllicting, 
than any other judgment of Heaven ever sent upon that 
country. The Kovolution commenced by the destruction of 
the ancient prison of the state, the Bastile, in 1789. The 
king was beheaded, January 1793. The (^ueen and the 
Dauphin, an only son, soon lolluwed. The rest of the royal 
family left the kingdom. DilVerent forms of government ra- 
pidly succeeded each olhrr, one set of rulers usually putting 
to death their predecessors, while the ruling powers and the 
army seized the greater part of the property of the kingdom. 
An ardour apj)roa(*hing to enthusiasm, was infused into the 
military class, and virlory and conquest generally attended 
the march of their armies. Buonaparte, the most successful 
military adventurer mentioned in history, assumed the go- 
vernment, under the appellation of First Consul, in the year 
1800 ; and, in 1804, was declared Emperor. In 1807, all 
the powers of Europe, except Cireat Britain and Turkey, 
were under his intluenrc and controul. The latter of these 
Wgis expected to fall whenever he turned his arms ag;iinst it. 
IBut the God of heaven was soon to show the weakness 
of all human power. The insatiable ambition of the Em- 
peror projected the conquest of Russia, and, in 1812, he led 
into that country the must formidable army ever command- 
ed by one mani This army was bre)k«'n and destroyed, and 
its proud head,*like Xerxes, returned to his own country a 
di«^appointed fugitive. In 1814, he was coiupiered by the al- 
lied power«, and banished to the Island of Elba. Louis 
XV 1 1 1, n wandering exile of more than twenty years, re- 
turned to France and ascended the throne of his ancestors. 

In the sj)ring of 181'), Buonaparte escaped from Elba and 
returned to France. Mo>^t of the army joined iiim, and the 
king tied to Holland. June 18th (the sabbath) he engaged 
the army of Wellington, fought his last brittle, and was utter- 
ly overthrown. According to his uniform custom after a de- 
feat, he left his army, and h istened to his capitid. No longer 
able to command, he found none disposed to obey. He soon 
tied trom tlie resentment of an indignant oppressed people, 
and, near the harbour of Rochefort, resigned himself to a 
large ship of the English navy for protection and security. 
The countrv that had made the {rreate^t elVorts to resist his 
arms and reduce his power, now held him a voluntary pri- 



3ECT. 1. M©BERN HISTORY. 331 

soner. He was not permitted to land in Great Britain, but 
was Foon transported to the island of St. Helena, wliere he 
will probably end his days. His life is the most useful les- 
son the world has exhibited, on the danger and folly of mi- 
litary ambition. — Louis was restored to the throne, to the 
great joy of his bleeding people, and France, now the coun- 
try of widows and orphans, enjoys the blessings of peace. 
Long may it continue. 



CHAPTER HI. 

HISTORICIL SKETCHES OF THE SOUTHERN KINGDOMS 02 

EUROPE. 

SECTION I. 

EVENTS OF SPAIN UNDER THE BOURBON PRINCES. 

At the accession of Philip V, of the House of Bourbon^ 
to the throne of Spain, that kingdom, which had long been 
one of the most powerful in Europe, had become much re- 
duced in its wealth and po[)ul,ilion, and still more in the ge- 
nius and activity of the people. The long wars which the 
government was compelled to miintain to secure the crown 
upon the head 0/ its new possessor, reduced the nation still 
lower, and rendered the reign of Philip unproductive of me- 
morable events. His reign was long, and not greatly dis- 
turbed by war. Yet the de^ipotisni of the government, Avitli 
the superstition and oppressions of llie Catholic Cliurch, no 
other l3eing tolerated, joined to the n:itnral indolence of the 
people, were calculated to suppress all spirit of enter})rise, 
and gradually destroy the strength and reputation of the 
kingdom. Philip died in 1716, and was succeeded by his 
son Ferdinand VI, who would gladly have restored the pri- 
vileges and prosperity of his people. Hut the general cor- 
ruption of the court, the clergy, and the nobility, formed an 
obstacle to reformation, that no ordinary abilitie^s in a sove- 
reign could expect to surmount. 

Ferdinand, dying without issue, was succeeded by his bro- 
ther Charles III, then king of Naples, in 1750. Possessing 
the natural sloth of his countrymen, with the effeminacy of 
an Italian, his mother being a princess of Parma, he was 
wholly under the influence of favourites, and did little for 
the nation over whom Providence had called him to reign; 



o32 MODERN HISTORY. CHAP. III. 

lu 17G1, he entered into an alliimce with Frnnce, in the wai 
tiien raj^ing between that kini^iloiu and Great Britain, and, 
in tlie lullouinti; year, lost the strong lort ret; s of the Havan- 
na, which was taken by a British army. Tliis was one of 
the most important of their foriij^n possessions, and its caj)- 
ture liastencd the negotiations for peace in 1763, when it 
was restored. A number of jieople from New-Enp:land and 
the adjacent colonies were enu:at:;ed in the inemor?»l)le siege 
of the llavanna. — lint the greatest warlike event of this reign 
was the celebrated siege of Gibraltar. Having acknowledg- 
ed the ind^'pendenre of the American States, Spain was im- 
mediatelv involved in war with Great Britain, 'i'he cele- 
brated fortress of Gibraltar had been in the possession of that 
power, since the year 1701. This had always been a most 
mortilyins; event to the Spanish nation. In the summer of 
1779, a Spanish army invested Gibraltar on the land side, 

i!)d comrnonced a siegr which proved to be one of the most 
iiiemoralde mentioned in history. After various actions be- 
tween the besiegers and the besieged, and frecpient bom- 
bardments, the grand attack was made on the 13tj» of Sep- 
tpmi)er, 178'J, l)y land and sea, by the united armits and tleets 

i Spain and France. More than 400 pieces of heavj ord- 
nance were playing upon the fortress at the same time. But 
the strength of the place and the valour of the garrison re- 
sisted t!u' formidable power of the assailants, and destroyed, 
by means of hot shot and shells, all their floating batteries, 
from which tlii'y entertained the most confulent expectations 
nf viirot'ss. The I'oiiowing yt ar ju-odured a general peace. 
Charles IV\ succeeded his father in 17oG. His incom|)e- 
Kiicy for reigning has been i'ljualird by bis misfortunes. 
His attacliment to t)ie uniortunato king of France soon in- 
volved him in war with the revobitionary government of that 
country, w hich terminate«l. after a few yt-nrs, in a humiliating 
peace. From that event the trea.>ures of Spain went into 
the coft'ers of France, and her councils were controuled by 
French intrigue. In the year 180C, the pu^illilnimous king 
was seduced into the French territories, will) all the royal 
familv, under the most solemn promises of protection and 
security, and the whole wee immediately made prisoners. 
The king was compelled to resigfi his crown in favour of 
Buonaparte, who proclaimed hiii brother Joseph king of 
Spain. This perfidy hatl the effect to ;»waken the long-latent 
energies of the Spanish people, they rose, as if roused by 
one voice, to reclaim tlieir oppressed sovereign, and resist 
the arbitrary usurpation of a foreign tyrant. Some of the 
mo>-t noble efforts of patriotism were soon made to check 



SECT. 2. SfODERN hiStorv. 333 

the progress of the French armies. The city of Saragossu 
resisted the foe with unparalleled resolution and courage. 
Defended by Palafox, the best of the Spanish officers, the 
enemy were compelled to raise the seige and return with dis- 
grace. At a second attempt, by the prevalence of an epidemic 
disease, the city was taken, with great slaughter, and the gal- 
lant Palafox carried a prisoner to France. But such was the 
decay of public and private virtue in Spain, so few charac- 
ters were to be found, who were proof against corruption, 
that these efforts of resistance must soon have been crushed 
by the overwhelming power of France, had not the people 
received the most efficient aid from Great Britain. An Eng- 
lish army was soon sent to their assistance, conducted by the 
prudence and valour of Wellington, who was tbrmed for ev- 
ery kind of warfare, and never left the Peninsula till Ferdi- 
nand VIl, son of the ill-fated Charles, was quietly seated on 
the throne. . The French were expelled from Spain early in 
J 8 1 4, about the same time that the armies of the east enter- 
ed France from that quarter, subdued and dethroned the 
emperor. There was no more able generalship, and no 
harder lighting, in this warlike period, than was exhibited by 
the army of Wellington, and the French armies under Mas- 
sena and Soult. — It will hardly be credited in future times, 
though history will always declare the fact, that all the ad- 
mirers of Buonaparte, through the world, were ofiended with 
the Spaniards for their resistance of his perfidious o})pression, 
and cordially wishetl him success against the honest struggles 
of that people for liberty and indepeydence. 

The foreign possessions of Spain, in the East and West In- 
dies and on the continent of America, are more extensive 
than those of any other Euroj)ean kingdom. From these 
the parent country has drawn immense treasures for three 
centuries. But these treasures having consisted in the pre- 
cious metals rather than in objects which produce an active 
commerce, have impoverished instead of strengthening the. 
kingdom. 



SECTION II 

REVIEW OF EVENTS IN PORTUGAL 

■The government oi Portugal was seized by Spain on the 
death of Sebastian, in the year 1580. In 1C40, it was wrest- 
ed from the Spanish monarch and became independent un-- 

29* 



.).'i MODERN HI3T0n.y. CHAP. ni. 

tier the sovernment of John IV, of the hon?c of Braganza, 
the leg-.il heir to the throne. Tlie princes ol" hin house have 
been wise and faithful monarchs, have encouraged commerce, 
have improved und pre-^erved the most of their extensive co- 
lonies, and, had it not been tor the rehgious bigotry of the 
nation, in all the corruptions of the papal hierarchy, they 
mij^ht have enjoyed hapi)ine«'S and prosperity, in proportion 
to the mildness of their climate and the fertihly of their coun- 
try. — The most of the wars in which Portugal has been en- 
gaged, lor a century and a halt', have arisen from the inte- 
rests and connexions of their colonies. Their possessions 
in Asia, formerly very powerful, arc now much reduced. 
Their provinces in South America are still rich and exten- 
sive. The great country of Urazil, belonginij to the Fortu- 
^^uesc, is {>roljably, the best part of the southern division of 
this continent. 

For a century past there ha* u-ually been a cluse alliance 
between Portugal ami Ciicat lirilain. 'ibis connexion has 
been hiijhly advantageous to both countries. When the ar- 
mies of Trance had commenced the invasion of Spain and 
Portugal in 18U7, and the Peninsula r.ontained no lorce suf- 
ficient for its own defence, the royal family left Lisbon, and 
with a large fleet of shij)s of war and merf hantmen, sailed to 
Brazil. A detuclunentol ihe British fleet, then lying in those 
seas, accompanied the expedition. Since that time, the 
"world has witnessed the unpreceilented event of a monarch 
residing in a colony and governing the parent .''tate. Since 
the restorntion of peace it has been expected that the royal 
family of Portugal would return to Lislion. But no indica- 
tions of such an event have yet appeared. 

The humiliation of the House of Austria having left the 
armies of France at liberty to pursue the most eflicient mea- 
sures for the conquc'^t of the Peninsula, a very strong i'orcc 
under the command of Massena, the tirst of tlic French gen- 
erals, traversed the m«st of Spain in 1010, pursuing the alli- 
ed army of British, Spaniarils, and Portuguese, resolved on 
its entire destruction. \Vclhngton, the coinmandtr of the 
allied forces, was compelled to retire before the suj)erior 
strength of his enemy, till he marie his final stand on the 
heights at t!ie east and north ot Lisbon. Cireat were the 
exj)ectations of the approaching conflict. It was not be- 
lieved that Massena, with as good an army as France could 
furnish, would retire trom an inferior force witho'it an action. 
But after lying before the position of his enemies for a month, 
he commenced a retreat. He was instantly followed by the 
allied army, and there was almoet constant sjiirmishing til' 



SECT. 3. MODERN HISTORY. 333 

he arrived in the interior of Spain and was joined by other 
corps of the French forces. The retreating army sustained 
considerable loss, yet it was one of the most masterly re- 
treats on the records of war. Massena, assisted by Ney, 
Regnier, and others, conducted his army from place to place 
in sight of his pursuing enemy, with such skill and address, 
as commanded the admiration of his adversaries, and brought 
the most of his troops to a place of safety. — While the de- 
fence of Lisbon was most honourable to the allied arms, the 
capital of Portugal was preserved from the ravages of a 
French army. Since that event, no part of Portugal has 
been to any extent, the theatre of war. 

In 1755, Lisbon was mostly destroyed by an earthquake, 
but has since been rel)uill. In 1759, that troublesome reli- 
gious order, the Jesuits, was banished from Portugal, 



SECTION III. 

HISTORICAL REMARKS 0?f ITALY. 

Italy, the seat of ancient greatness, is now great in ruins 
The inhabitants of this extensive country, thoJit;h possessing 
great vivacity of genius and enjoying one of the pleasantcst 
portions of Europe, have become enervated by sloth and 
luxury, by superstition aiul vice, so as to present but little 
for the notice of history. 

From the fall of the Roman empire to the present day, 
Italy has been dividrd under a number of separate govern- 
ments. Rome, with a surrounding territory sometimes more 
and sometimes less extensive, has long been governed by 
the Popes. — The goutliern parts of Italy uith the Inland of 
Sicily, forms the kini;dom of Niiples, and is the largest of the 
Italian states. — The repul)lics of Venice and Genoa, distin- 
guished for commerce, wealth and ])ower, for several cen- 
turies, now constitute a part of the dominions of the House 
of Austria. The Austrian governm«>nt exercises authority, 
greater or less, over the most of the northern parts of Italy* 
Some states are nearly independent, while others are depen- 
dent parts of that empire. — Few portions of modern history 
arc more interesting than that of the Republic of Venice. 
Thousrh possessing but a small territory, their freedom, their 
commerce, their industry, made them for a long period, one 
of the strongest and most opulent of the powers of Europe- 



336 MODERN HISTORV. CHAP. IV 

The best history of V^enice in ourhinguage i-> in the Modern 
Universal Hijjtory. 

The most of the wars of Austria, France, and Spain, for 
two centuries past, have had their seat in Italy. The Italian 
states, on that account, have often changed masters, and of- 
ten experienced the ravages of hostile armies. The French 
destroyed the most of the romaininu; liberties of Italy. Re- 
peated trials have proved that, in modern times, an army of 
Italians will do but little in war. 

The two most illustrio'i> families of modern Italy are the 
Princes of Parma, of the family of Farnese, and the llouse of 
Medii i at Florence. iVIany of tlie first characters in Italy, 
in civil, ecclesiastical, and military life, have belonged to 
these fimilies. Through the patronage of the House of Me- 
dici, Florence has been distinguished for the cultivation of 
the fine arts for more than three centuries. During that peri- 
od the family of Medici have done more for the eiicourage- 
mfrit of -cience and the arts, and in public charities, than any 
other family in Furope. 

Italy h.Hs ju«itly bt'on considered the seat of the fine arts 
since their revival in the tifleenth century. Some of them, 
particularly sculpture, painting, and architecture, are cultivat- 
ed if) great perfection now. 'i'he m<>del< of an<ient art, with 
which their country abniind<i, have eminently contributed to 
the perfection of modern skill. The Pantheon of Home, an 
ancient temple, having stood more than 18(10 years, with lit- 
tle decay, is the most perfect piece of ancient architecture 
now remaining. St. Peter's Church, in the same city, built 
300 years ;igo, is the best work of modern times, and i** pro- 
nounced by competent Judges the hrst specimen of archilec 
ture now in being. 



CHAPTER IV. 

HISTORV OF GERMANY AND THE ADJACENT KINGDOMS FRCM 
THE PEACE or WESTPHALIA. 

SECTION I. 

OF THE GERMAN EMPIRE. 

The Empire of Germany exhibits the political phenome- 
uon of a number of independent states united under one com- 
mon hei*d. All are, in a sense, subordinate to the Emperor, 



SECT. 1. MODERN HISTORV. 337 

yet it is common for a state of war to exist between him 
and some of the smaller states. AH of the states are repre- 
sented in the Diet of the Empire, where objects of common 
concern are transacted. 

The princes of the Empire having ceased to make war up- 
on each other on the grounds of religion, after the peace of 
Westphalia, in the year 1C48, Germany remained considera- 
bly quiet lor a long period. — The House of Austria has long 
had an ascendancy in the empire, from the extent of its own 
hereditary dominions, and from havinsj usually held the im- 
perial crown. The great circle of Austria, the kingdoms of 
Hungary and Bohemia, with some places in Italy, are consid- 
ered the hereditary d')minions of thi* House, and contain 
more than 2U,UU0,UUU of inhabitants. The Emperor has 
been generally elected from tliis House, for three centuries. 
The principal misfortunes of Germany have risen from the 
mutual jealousies of the diflerent states. Austria, being an 
inlan<l country, and incapable of carrying on foreign com- 
merce to any extent, has ever been solicitous to enlarge its 
territories. The princes of the empire, as well as the other 
European states, have also considered that House as imusual- 
ly ambitious, desirous of establishing a suj)remacy among the 
powers of Europe. This opinion has not been without foun- 
dation. And, on this account, there has long been an heredi- 
tary enmity between Austria and France, both of which as- 
pired to the riL:ht of being Arbiters of Europe. In the wars 
of these two powers, the smaller German states have taken 
diflerent sides, as their interests, or, more commonly, their 
jealousies dictated. For which reason, ihoir hostilities have 
been frequent, and. sometimes, lasting. From the circum- 
stance of the rivalship of France on the one side, and the 
deadly hostility of tlie Turks on the other, Austria has long 
been warlike and powerful. 

The war for the Spanish succession, in the former part of 
the last century, was carried on by Austria against France 
with success. The Austrian claimant being elected Empe- 
ror, the Spanish crown was relinquished to the House of 
Bourbon, in the peace of 1713. — Soon after this, Austria was 
engaged in a very tierce war with the Ottoman Porte, and, 
after gaining two splendid victories, made a peace, very hon- 
ourabJe and advantn^TCOus to Germany, in 1718. The vic- 
torious general was Prince Eugene, one of the greatest com- 
manders of modern times. No other war of much duration 
disturbed the repose of Germany till that of the Pragmatic 
Sanction, which was an engagement of several |)owers to se- 
cure the Austrian dominions to the female children of the 



338 MODERW HISTORV. CHAP. IV. 

Emperor Charlrs VI, in c;i«e of the tailuro of male issue. 
At his doith, in 1 7-10, his dauj^hter, Maria 'J'lirresa was raised 
to the Austrian throne, hut the ncii^hhourini^ powers', regard- 
less of their solemn stipulations, supported tlie Duke of lia- 
varia in his claim to the rr()>vn. The Queen seemed likely 
to he overwhelmed hy her numerous adversaries, l)Ut, hy the 
aflection of her suhjccts and the alliance of Great Britain, she 
tnumi)hed over her enemies, and, at the peace of 1748, was 
conlirraed in the po««se-sion of her dominions, and her hu3- 
banil was raised to the Imperial throne. 

The seven year-J war, as it has heeu called, was one of the 
most vij^orous war-^ ever >vag«<l in Germany. It hegan in 
175G. Its principal cause wab the mutual jealousy and am- 
bition of Au-itria and Prussia. France, Great Britain, IIol- 
l;md, and Ku8>ia acted as allies. The great mditary tal- 
ents of the kins; of Pru^^via were all exerted, while those of 
the Au^tri.in i^rneral, fount Daun, were scarcely inferior. 
After many s in;;uinary hatlles, sieges, victories, and defeats, 
the respective combat.mt< n) idc peace, without any m.Uerial 
a<lv antaiije to any one, in 1763. 

The Germainc hody now remained tolerably (juiet till the 
French Revolution. Th»» war* which arose from lh«t event 
have lia<l their principal seat in Germany, an<lthe consequent 
sufterin;;;-' of the people hive been indescril>ahle. Previous 
to that event, loose and irrelii^iou-, publications had multipli- 
ed in Germany more than in any other country. No other 
country so much ahoun<ls with that description of author*, 
who are a great nui-^ance to society, who write and puldi^-h 
merely to obtain* a subsistence. The works of such writers^ 
are, almost universally, of a corrupt and Jani;eroi)«« tendency. 
Germmy was tlelu;;ed with publicati<uis of this description, 
^vhich had fitally corrupted the minds of the people, lendinj; 
many lo embrace the mo<t irrelii;io\i«< ami di'«orijani/irui; senti- 
ments, and thus prepared them for the secret encourai;emeiit 
of the torrent of revolution, which alone can account for its 
rapid pro;rress, a<;;iin<t all the etTorts of the wi<e and the 
ji^ood, in that and in other countrieK. The same causes op- 
erated, more or less, through Kurope ; and, as far as they 
couhl have inlluence, their tiniform effect was misery and 
ruin. No people, out of France, so ardently embraced the 
system of an;«rchy and irrcli^ien, in itn early stages, as the 
Germans. And none have sufl'ered, so deeply, from its fatal 
effect.*. 

In the wars of Revolutionary and Imperial France, the 
government and armies of Austria, for the {greater part of the 
time, have been arrayed agaiQst her. The French ariuie«i 



SECT. 1.^ MODERN HISTORV. 339 

have usually been victorious. The Austrian troop? have 
shown as much tirmness and courage, and their oflicers as 
much valour and skill, as their adversaries. The Ar( Ixhike 
Charles, hrotheroflhe present Emperor Francis II, h;is otten 
faced liis rival and antagonist Buona{)arte, in the held, and 
has seldom appeared his interior. — But there has always been 
a deticiency in the Austrian Councils. French intrigue has 
had a constant influence, and there have usually been some 
intbiential characters in the cabinet of Vienna, during the 
whole revolutionary period, wlio were secretly in the inter- 
est of France. Seldom has an important battle been fought, 
and probably never, without some of the Austrian olTicers 
being in the same interest. Sometimes, very improper cha- 
racters have been placed at the head of their armies : at 
others, their commimders have been so perplexed by orders 
from court, or embarrassed for want of siijiplies, as to paral- 
ize their noblest exertions. 

The Fmperor Joseph II, son of the cele\>rated Muria The- 
resa, died in ITl'U, and was succeeded by his brother Leopold 
II. I n 1 792 this Fmperor was preparing to make a vigorous 
eflort against liie Kevohilioiiist." of France, in behaliOf their 
sutVeriijg king anil t^ueen, (the unl'ortnnate iMaria Antoinette 
being his sister, ) but a sudden death put a period to his de- 
signs, in March of that year. He was STicc»»rded by his son 
Francis II, the present mild and respected Kmperor. The 
contemplated war with France was prosecuted, though uitii- 
out that vii:;our ami steadiness which the Austrian resources 
could easily atVord. M;irsh;<l Wurmser and the Archduke 
Charles perfurmrd the part of ahlf «rentrals and gained some 
imi)ortant victories, but were olten beaten by the French. 
The Austrian armies were dispersed in dilferent bailies, and 
these generals, with interior nund»ers, could not withstand the 
rai)id enterprise of hounaparte and the enthusiasm of the 
French troops. The war was v( ry sanguinary in lti'l> and 
11 the Kliine, and was concluded by the peace of C'ampo 
Kormio, in 1797. 

'i'he cotjtinual encroachments of France convinced Aus- 
tria that tins peace couKI not be lasting. And ha\ ing obtiined, 
the assistance of Kussi*, she recommcrnced the war in March 
17i)!». A Kiissian arn.y soon rea( bed the scene of a* tion, 
under Marshal Suwarrow, and, joinini; the Austrian aiTiiy, all 
their movements were attended with victory. The ronquest.s 
in It dy. \vhi«:h had cftst the I'renrh two or three vears of 
hard figiiting, were wrested fi om them in a few months. 
The Frencli armies were driven nearly tt» their own territo- 
ries and hopes were entertained by many that the Bourbons 



340 MODERN HISTORY. CHAf. IV. 

would he restored. But French intrigue excited a jealousy 
of the Russians in the Austrian court, and soon induced the 
capricious Paul to recal his victorious army. Suilering Eu- 
rope had not yet endured the chastening which a righteous 
Heaven designed to intlict. In the year loUO Austria was 
left to sustain the war alone, and had not yet learned to con- 
centrate l^er whole force to mret the enemy. The loss of the 
great battle of .Marengo, in .'uno, ;ind that of lluhenlinden, in 
December, the former gained by Htionaparte, the latter by 
Moreau, led to the peace of Luneville, in which Austria was 
more iiumhled than at the former peace. 

The third war of Austria with France was more rapid and 
disMstrous than the onii preceding. The French party still 
prevailed at court. 1 l(j<^tilities connnencetl in October 1805, 
the army of Gen. Mack was soon destroyed, Buonaparte ad- 
vanced to \'ierma, but ii»ver halted till he reached the Aus- 
trian army. I'rancis, having been joined by the Fniperor of 
Russia with a part of his forces, w.is so infatuated as to sutler 
his armv to eui^ige the French at Austerlil/, (Dec. 'Jd) 
when liie Archduke ('harles was advancing to join him, 
v\ illiin six days march, with a victorious army of 95,000 men. 
The combined Austrian and Ru-<ian army was utterly broken, 
and an armistice concbided bctorc tlie Archduke could ar- 
rive. The peace of Presburgh, in which the Austri;m mon- 
archy waj dismembered of >ome of its most important pos- 
sessions, imniedintely followed. 

The painful de;^radation ol Austria and the continued abu- 
ses of P" ranee, with the prospect of a favourable diversion 
in Spain, iriduced the government to m ike one more appeal 
to arms, in hopes to regain their lost possessions, or to re- 
trieve their wounded honour. In this war there was a fair 
triid of streni^th between the tvv<i jjowers. Wise and faith- 
ful patriots i:;uided the rabinet, and excellent generals com- 
m n»<led in the tiebi. I'li'' Arc bduke Charles commanded the 
armv, with unconlri^uled power*, will) the assistance of the 
Arciidiike lolin, tiie Prince of Lichtcuslein, and the I'rince of 
Schwartzenberg, officers in whom hecou Id confide. — But 
the re^^ources of Austria wep-" now greatly dimiiii-ihed, wfiile 
every ye ir of IJuoiMparte's reign Ind strengthened those of 
France. — The court of Vienna issued a declaration of war 
on the Gth of April 1009. The French Kmperor had antici- 
pated the event .uid was prepared for action. He soon joined 
his army and marched into th** heart of Germany. Saxony 
and Bavaria unit*^d with tljc invader. He entered Vrenna, 
from which the Emperor liad fled. He came up ^th the 
Austrian army a few miles below the capital. The French 



SLCT. 1. xMODEUN IIISTOIIV. o4I 

army crossed the Danube, without much mole.-tution, and on 
the 21j:t and 22d of May the two armies foirght the battle of 
Essling, one of the most severe and sana;iiinary in which the 
French conqueror was ever engaged. The Emperor, hither- 
to deemed invinciijle, and his army, confident of succes;-, 
were beaten by the Archduke in a reguhu- ticld-tight, and 
compelled to recross the river. The victory, however, 
was not decisive, the loss on each side was about equaL 
• The two nrmies retained their respective positions, till the 
£;nperor, having receive*! a large reinforcemeMt, again cross- 
^^ed to the north side of the Danube, and, in the long and obsti- 
-Tiate battle of VVagram, on the Gth of July, obtained a decisive 
*^'ictory, which compelled the Archduke to retreat, though he 
J was not overtlirown. Some misconduct in the Austrian ar- 
*my induced a belief that some of the ofliccrs had been cor- 
ru[>ted b)^ the enemy. 

The Court of Vienna, unsupported by any alliance, now 
viewed the contest as desperate, and made peace with the 
« onqueror, on condition of relinquishing a further portion of 
tt-rritory, and giving the eldest daughter and child of the Em- 
I peror Francis, Maria Louisa, to the Emperor of France inu 
: marriage. He had resolved oa the divorce of his wife Jose- 
phine, which took place in Deceml)er of tiiat year, and his 
secon<l marriage was in March following, it is supposed that 
> this matrimonial alliance was the reason that the conqueror 
' did not aur.ihilatc the Austrian government, when I c seems 
to have it in his power. 

When the French Emperor had lost his ereat army in 
uussia and all Europe rose agninsl him, in 181.;, Austria wrs 
• lie ofthc most reluctant to eng;ige in the contest. "Whether 
»iu account of their past suiferings or the family alliance, it 
was late before the Austrian army took the field. But hav- 
•• ing engaged in the common cause, the most clhcient meas- 
"* ures were pursued. The Emperor accompanied the army, 
which was commanded by the Prince of Schvvartzenberg.lln 
Jibe groat and decisive battle of Leipsic, in which the poHer 
^ of' Buonaparte was finally broken, the allied armies were 
commanded, principally, by him. In that action the French 
loss was about 40,000 men. As soon as the day was evi- 
dently won, the Prince rode in haste to the Emperors of Aus- 
, ' tria and Russia, and the King of Prussia, who were viewing 
the battle from a distant eminence on horseback, and having 
informed them that the battle v/as gained and the enomv de- 
feated at all j)oints, the sovereigns immediately dismounted, 
and, on their knees, gave thanks to the God of armies for the 
victorv he had given them.l 

*30 



•iJ MOL»nii.'« HISTORY. ClUr. IV. 

\n rcsioring the peace an«l aivirnt •jnlcr of K«iroj)c, the 
ffouse of Austria actc<l in a manner uorlliy ol'lhat elevatrd 
r.ii)k vsiiich tiiey h ul lon^ su:«taine(l. They were altentivr* 
ti) lh€ ilglitsi of the (Jonnunit' body and the chiinis of tlie 
minor powoi-s, and endeavoun d, a:? f{»r as pofsil)Ie, to n-in- 
fitate all in tlicir former poj-r^cssions. The Kin]>oror i - 
his own territorial limit*, and returned to the title anu i.iiii.- 
of Euij'cror of (j'ernrany. of whirh he had been deprived. 



SF.CTION II. 

mSTORV 01 rillSSIA KRO.M Tin: ESTABLISllMr.NI OK TiU 

KI.NGDOM. 

Pri.'ssia was one of the ancient Electorates of Cicrmany, 
dlcil the electorate of Brandenburj^h. In the year 1700. 
this electorate was made a kinplom, by the consent of all 
the Gcnn.m states, and was soon arki>owled:;ed by the neigh- 
bourin;; kinj^dom-*. 'I'he Klector Frederick, now become a 
' inj;, was a prinre rrs|)ecta)de for his talents and prudence, 
.iiul niMch in»;»ro\ed the iiil» r^*t.' anil pro»jperily-of his pe«)- 
j.Ie. jlis^on Frederick ^Villi;lm v\.i<a ni:in of energetic char- 
acter, and, inn n'i;;n of 27 yeai*8, gre.ttly increage*! tlu com- 
merce, military slren.;th, and revenues of his kiupdo-.n. I lis 
characU r siITT', ht'.vrver, by tb'* irMp'italion of avarice. — 
The princes of this h<Hise hav niform supporter^ 

of the Prileslant religion. 'J i»< m and R«fnrmed 

Churrhe.'? are, both, cnciMiraged . j.oiird thron«i;h the 

kiiij;dom. It is rem irkable of the*(^two i'hurches that they 
liave nnde litlle or n(» adv.mrement, fiom the ti.no'of their 
founder.^. They ?'iil r' main in the same ientiment* and 
praclicei with \^!iirh th«y wore IcA by those groat Reform 



'•V 

Kre»lcr 



ick Willi. im was mircecded, in 17 10, by his snnFrcd- 
« iic Iv the Great, who, with the r-iso'irccs of a small kinirdt)m, 

>id the malchle.ss en'^r;j;ies of liis own mint], k»^pt tl 
ioanic empire in constant awe, and filled the adjacei.l » m,- 
(\oni< with admiration and terror. Mi* reign continued 1^ 
year-i. Activity, ; .-^ilance, an unshaken constancy in niis- 
f >rtune, and insaliiMe amhilion, were the Irading traits of hi-^ 
character. He was the greatest warrior of hi'* lime, ^dc did 
not excel some others in the condnrt of a battle ^^Tcam 
paii;n ; but, for resources in aih rr^ity, for ceb;ritj^f ojiera- 
fjon-.and. e-jprriully f<>r the di*<?'(diiie ofbi*: troops, he ;ur 



SECT. C. , MODERN IlISTORT. 343 

\)ii?sei] Ihom all. He had the best arm} in Europe. His 
di.scii)liiie WcL« steady and sevoie, and he ever po?!jcssed the 
conlidtfiice of his troops. A leading ol>j.'0t ot" liis reign was 
to hurai)le the power of Austria. He extended the limits ot 
ids kingdiJin, nnd much increased it^ iiidu-try, population and 
weiillh. — \Vith all these valuable ([ualities of a sovei'ei^n, 
Frederick was sceptical, irreligious, and addicted to various 
si)ecies of vice. He p;itroni/ed tho<c atheistical philoso- 
phei*s who were labouring to supplant Christianity, who pre- 
pared the way, by the ditj^mination of their corrupt senti- 
ment-^, for tliat violent convulsion which has" overwhelmed 
Europe with blood. Dy thus s^radually destroying; the priii-^, 
ciples of religion and virtue among his people, the only piT- 
lars of iMitional security and greatness, this ambitious mo- 
narch comnjonccd that series of cvonts which ultimitely 
brought his kinj^dom to the feet of an ungodly conqueror, 
who, by the inlhienre of the same causes, hud been raised 
from ob>curity to «n imperial throne. Voltaire, the great 
corru[>le.r oftlte aj^e, and the ruin of his country, was a bo- 
som friend uf the king of Prussia. 

This celcbratetl monirch was succeeded i-\ i.i^ nephew in 
1786 ; and he by his son in 1^797. These two piinccs have 
evinced no great energy of mind, their adaiinistration has 
genernlly been controuled by the intrigues of France, and, in 
con«»e«pience of their iiere-lilary animosity ngii'.ist Austria, 
preventing a co-operation of strength when th'^ir n.itional ex- 
istence w;l«! lhreiit»'ned, butli of tliem were subjugited by the 
fortunate conqueror. Al\er neglecting several opporlunilics 
for humbling the common enemy, Prussia, with an unar- 
cotmtable inf ituation, risked lior niti<>n.d existi-nre on the is- 
sue of ^ sin;;le contlict. The fatal battle of Jena was fought. 
Opt. 14th ICOC, between the forces of Prussia, and the army 
of France, commanded by Buonaparte. He was victorious, 
and the power of Prue^siu was utterly broken. — There was 
no period of the French conquests, when the whole of ori- 
ginal (lermany, well united and organized, could not have 
resisted the utmost strength ■■f'^'i:- ci'^mv. I'ii* '^"" ''• 
vidod, and were conquered. 

In 1 f) 1 :<, I I, and In, Pru.>«sia made the mo>t vigorous pfiorts 
o lestore the liberties of F.urope. Her armic«, und(?r the 
valiant Blucher, aflordcd the most eiTicient assistance in the 
common cause. A more active and indef;iligablc enemy 
wa- never encountered by the French Kmpcror than thi;^ 
Pru.'i-i <n common ler. — The^e etTorts restored something oi 
the ancient honour of Prussia, and, at the conclusion oftlte 
•" ar, the kingdom was re-estiiblis.hed^ith its lonner iiuiit^ 



344 MODERN HISTORY. CHAP. IV. 

SECTION 111. 

IIISTOIIK AL EVENTS IN HOLLAND. 

TiiF. sevrritcen Provinces of the Nethorland.^ ]>clonji;ed, 
griginally to German}-. Tlie seven Proxinces of Holiaml. 
having obtained their independence, after a long contest with 
Spain, in the latter part of tlie sixteenth century, have been. 
e\er t<ince, a ^ou^i^lHllLJ and povrerfiil Kepubhr. 'I'he rc- 
iD lining ten provinces have beea very much the seat of Eu- 
ropean waris, and have often changed master.-. They have 
usuall} been shared l»y Kr.ince, Prus?ia, and Austria. The 
seven United Province.? have been distinguished above all 
<ither countries in Europe, fortlie *-leady perseverini; indus- 
try of the people. Thir^j estimable trait of character, one of 
the first of human virtues ha.« produced its natural e(Tect>^ 
peace and prosj)erity. Tiiough lud hiichly favoured in point 
of .'ioil or climate, lloilaiul lias long been the richest anfl 
mo;t populous coiintry in^hat quarter of the globe. Theii 
torritin possessions, particularly in the East Indies, have been 
very great, and have produced great wealth to the nation, 
l^reviousto the French Revolution, the foreign commerce of 
ihc Dutch was supposed to be equal to that of Great Britain 
and, at some periods, superior, These two powers possess- 
ed more than half of the navigation of Europe. As a natural 
attendant of commerce, the Dutch liavc maintained a strong 
nraritime force, and have sustained many severe conlhcts 
with the Lavy of Gr«'al liritain. Their entcrpri.^e in the es- 
!abiishn>ent of colonies, in Ihe various quarters of the world, 
',;- been r.Kirith d with signal surress. Had the memorable 
> '.V.rt of il)e Eiiuli.>-ii Puritans who commence.l tlie setth-ment 
.)f New-England, been deterred a few years later, the Hud- 
on and Connecticut Rivers would, probably, have been in 
;l)e socure pos-:os.-ion of the Dutch. 

The Republic of Hollaud has had some share in the most 
I the wars which have prevailed in Europe for two centu- 
iios past. Tlie princes of the House of Orange, at all times 
;he first fimily in the republic, have been highly distinguished 
in the cabinet and the lit;]'!. 'J'he navnl commanders. Van 
Promp, De Kuyter. and others, ha\e olitain*.! :> r nui.ttioi; 
equalled by few, and exceeded by none. 

In the In-t century it was apparent that tlie « liara( ler ol the 
Dutch was, in ameasure. declining. Their indu<Jtry abated 
their wealth created a spirit of avarice. These cau-es pre 
pared the way for their easy conquest by the intrigues and 
army of France The country was overrun and conqueref^ 



siCTT. A. aK)I)£ltK /TIbTOUV. :>-4 ^ 

by the French- annips in 1705, ami IIjc .SuidilioUler-lup abol- 
ished. The Stadtholder was necessitated to fiy to Tngland 
for safety, where he resided till the French imiierial power 
was broken. During this interval, }loll;\nd was con.-rtantly 
oppressed and plundered by the French, her commerce was 
destroyed, and the mo^t of her foreign possessions were lost. 
At the late re-cstablishmcnt of the ancient sovereignties ol 
Europe, all the Belgic Provinces, including Holland and Flan- 
ders, have been wisely united, and erected into a kingdom, 
under the government of the reigning Prince of Orange, with 
the title of King of the Netherlands. The most o{ their for- 
eign possessions arc restored. 



.SECTION IV 



SWITZrULANP. 



TiiK ihirt«'on Cantons ot Switzerland were gradually wrest- 
ed from the iloniinion of the House of Austria, by the extra- 
ordinary courage and perseverance of their hardy inhabi- 
tants. They were united in u grand contederncy, for their 
mutual salbly , early in the sixteenth century. Rv the advan- 
tages of their mountainous country and the united valour of 
the people, they have long maintaineil their independence, 
agjiin^t the powerful ujanarchi«*s with which they arc sur- 
rounded, 'i'hey were acknowledged as an independent peo- 
ple, in the treaty of Westphalia in 1G48. They have en- 
joyed more liberty, for three centuries, than any other peo- 
ple in Europe. i'hcy have u-^ually maintained a close alli- 
ance with France, to the mutual benefit of both countries. 
Their country being too barren to support any great increase 
of populatioti, tlie governmiMit have usuiily encouraged ^ 
their young mon to enlist, as merceniries, in the armies of 
France and other couiitries ; by which means, they have al- 
ways been ilile to commmd a powerful boily of disciplined 
troops, on any necessary occasion. With .such means of an- 
noyance and defence, tln-y ha\e n^aint liutMl th«Mr indepen- 
dence and li!)erties between the two most fornii<lal)le conti- 
nent d monirchies, and enjoyed a long period of almost un- 
interrupted peace and prosperity. — They wtie conquered 
by the French Kevidutionists in 1797, and their H'oerties 
were extiniruished. They arc now rc-establishedj in a «ood 
legree, in their ancient privileges. 

30* 



i^ MODLRN HISTORY. mir. V. 

CIIAPTEK V. 

TIISTORICAL SKETCHES OF THE NORTHERN KINGDOMS OF EV- 

nOFE. 

SECTION I. 

VIF.W OF K\'FX1S IN IHVMVUK. 

Since the long wars between the rioU.«<t..nl ami Calhohc 
powers, during the former part of the seventeenth century, 
\[ has been the jjohry of the Danish sovereigns to cultivate 
peace witfi their neighbours, ami they liave, for the mo t 
j.art, been successful. Tliough the government has been 
an absolute monarchy since the year 1G«>I, the kings have 
generally exercised their power with mildness and equity, 
and sought the best interests of their peciple. Favotired by 
<ho situation of their country, they have encourage<l com- 
merce, and possessed some colonies in the Ea^it and West In- 
dies. — They m;ule early and laudable exertions to introduce 
Christianity among the natives of their Asi.ith po^>es^ions. A 
Danish Mission w:ts established in India, early in the last cen- 
tury, it was sust.iine.l, for a long period, with gre.it failliful- 
ue>s and zeal, ami ha« be<'n attemkii with much success. The 
Air.erican Mission in that country, which we trust will even- 
rually enjoy the special )»les>iiiix of God, is a rontinuauce of 
the good work begun by the Danes, and, afterwards, more 
vigorously prosecuted by Missionaries from (ireat Britain. 

The Dan»'s long stood aloof from the late wars, which 
>iavc so violently agitated the states of Europe. In IbUl, 
•hey attached themselve*; to the interests of France, by tak- 
ing a part in the armeil iNeutrality of the Northern powers. 
In ronseipionce of which, a British fleet, under the command 
of Lord Nolsoi), made a powerful attack on the city of (Co- 
penhagen and the armed ships in the harbour, which the 
Danish Ibrce was unable to withstand. ^J'he result was an 
armislice, which was soon followed by a treaty of peace. — In 
180.J, through the influence of the increasing powerofFrance, 
Denuvu'k again attached herself to the interest^ of that coun- 
try, though she made no great ctTorts as a parly in the war. 
She l)er;une involved of course, in a state of hostility with 
Fmiland. The |)rogresN of this ho-stility !)roui:ht on an event 
which lias not its like in naval warfare. A powerful British 
fleet sailed to the Baltic in the summer of 1807, and, after a 
heavy bombardment of the city of C'opeidiairen, took po-ses- 
-ion, bv rapitiil itiun, of the whole Danish fleet, with all their 



SECT. 2. MODERN HISTORY. Jl7 

naval stores, which were very cxten.-iive, and brought them to 
England. It was done as the only means of preventing them 
from laUirjg into the hands of the French Erai)eror. They 
were ho4den till the general peace and then restored. This 
measure, however, highly oft'ended the Danes, and they were 
one of the last powers to join in the hnal war against France. 
Norway, for many years an independent kingdom, was 
united witli Denmark, by the marriage of Hagen king of 
Norway with iMargaret daughter of the king, and, aAerwards, 
queen of Denmark, and the succession of their son Olaf to 
the two crowns, 1380, and the union has continued ever 
since. 



SECTION 11. 

SKETCH or THE MODERN HISTORY OF SWEDEN'. 

No people in Europe have a higher esteem of military va- 
lour than the Swedes. Thus their celebrated sovereign 
Charles XII, though destitute of almost every qualihcation 
for reigning, and of every other virtue, and though his reign 
wasted the lives and treasures of his fiubjccts in a mo£t pro- 
di;;al manner, was a favourite of the nation. He was killed at 
the siege of Fredericshall in Norway, in 1718, by a cannon- 
ball, while exposing himselt', with perfect temerity, to unne- 
cessary danger. His death relieved his country and the 
north of Europe from war, which could not liave been inter- 
mitted, while he occupied his tlirone. After the death of 
ibis monarch, the government of Sweden inclined to the cul- 
tivation of peace. The exhausted kingdom demanded repose. 
Commerce and the attendant arts were vigorously encourag- 
ed. The possession of some islands in the West Indies gave 
activity to their foreign trade. Their vast exportations of 
iron make their trade highly valuable to other nations. 

An hereditary enmily has long existed between Sweden 
and Russia, but has produced no very active wars since the 
age of the great rivals, Peter and rharles. In 1772, the 
government, which had been very limited, was changed to 
an absolute monarchy. This was done by the address of the 
reigning monarch Gustavus III, who, like other tyrants, 
thought little of the liberties of his country when they came 
in competition with his own lust of power. To effect his 
purpose, he ordered his army to Stockholm, without making 
any communication of his design, surrounded the assembly 



S48 MODERN HISTORY. tflAP. V. 

of tho >t:^tcs wIjO were sittino;, with his «oU1jci>, and compt!- 
ied them to sign an in^tnunent, which, in effect, put the 
whole power into the hands of tlje kin^. It must, howevei 
be acknowledged, that this power was exercised with moth^- 
ration, ;tnd the succeeding part of tliat reign was quiet and 
prosp« rons. In IIO?, Gustavus III. was assassinated in the 
vigour of his age. — The reign of his son Gustavus IV, was i 
pacific, and Sweden has had the good fortune to avoid, in a 
"reat degree, a participation in tlie late wars ot Eurojje. 

The northern maritime confederacy in 18ul, being dissol- 
ved, it |)ro«luced few hostile measures except the naval action 
.»t Copenhagen, alreadv noticed. In the war of IGOG and 
1807, Sweden took part with Russia and Prussia ag-ainst 
Prance. She wa«, however, compclUd to make peace with 
iier enemy, al'ler tliose powers h;ul bren successively beaten. 
by making some imi)ortant cessions in Swedish Pomera- 
nia. At the «ame tini", ncrnadotte, a favourite general of 
Jie French Kmperor, through his intbience, was m.ide tliL- 
crown prince of Sweden, the heir to the throne. He, how- 
ever, soon became cordially attarhed to W\*i adojiting ( oun- 
iry, and has never alTorded any aid to his former master. In i 
the wars whi'h dethroned the conqueror of France, the 
orown prince, with a large Swedish army, worthy of thrii 
ancestor«J, cordially engaged in tiie common cause, and per- 
formed a njost honourable and efficient part in restoring tlie 
bbcrties of Europe. — At the recent death of Ctjs(a\us IV, 
llernadottc quietly succeeded to the throne, and appears 
i'kely to be a wi-e and beloved sovereign. 



SKCTION in. 

ji--r.,K\ ..', nir^iv rnoM Tirn timf. of vktp.k the (.-nKA-r. 

rni-> gieal Empire, more e\tcn-ivr th;ui any olli« r «v. r 
subject to a single monarch, was brouuht into notice witli 
the civilized world by Peter the Great, who died afn^a ver\ 
active and eminently useful reign, in 172.5. Ilewassiic- 
ceeded by his wife, Caiharine, who reigned but two years, i 
The succession of the crown not being settled by fixed laws, 
or the laws not being sufficiently ])owerful to conlroul tlie , 
jKUCccssion, several reigns followed in which the crown was 
held rather bv usurpation than regular succession. Catha- 
rine succeeded her husban<l W-Ut the Great, who left no 
.>on, by his appointment. At her death in 1727, Peter II. a 



SECT. 3. MODERN HISTORY. 349 

minor, grandson of Peter the Great, became emperor. He 
(lied of the sinali-pox in 1730, and wits succeeded by Anne, 
niece of Peter the Great. After a prosperous reign, she 
died in 1740, and was succeeded by Elizabeth, daughter of 
Peter the Great. In greatness of mind, skilful address, and 
capacity for reigning, she very near resembled her illustrious 
father. Her reign ^vas splendid and ver}' prosperous for 
Russia. In the seven years war in Germany, this empress 
joined with Austria against Prussia, and her gener.tls gained 
several important victories over the great Frederick. It was 
apprehended by many that the Prussian monarchy would be 
utterly overthrown, when the course of the Prussian victo- 
ries was suddenly stopped by the death of the empress, in 
17G2. She was succeeded by her nephew Peter III, grand- 
son of Peter the Great, by Anne elder sister of Elizabeth. 
The wife of Peter, to whom he had been married some years 
at the time of his accession to the throne, was Catharine of 
Anhalt, a princess of German}'. His talents were nut equal 
to his elevated and difficult station, and a conspiracy was 
formed against him a few months after he ascended the 
throne, of which it is universally believed his wife was the 
principal mover. The unfortunate Peter III. was dethroned, 
and in a few days put to death. His wife was immediatcl}' 
proclaimed empress, and became the celebrate*! Catharine 
justly denominated ' the Semiramis of the North.' 

The sovereigns now mentioned, since the time of Peter 
the Great, generally pursued the system of pohcy begun by 
that illustrious prince, in meliorating the moral condition of 
their subjects, cultivating learning and the arts, encouraging 
commerce, and enlarging and iniproving their new capital. 
They rightly judged that it was a sufficient honour for them 
to pursue the pi ui w hirh he had commenced. I'nder such a 
system of government, Ilussiarosc, during the last century, 
from a vast tract of country, little known and imperfectly 
united, to the (irst rank of European ])owers. And, in oui 
day, the holy Kuler of nations has called this great empire 
to execute his will in subduing the greatest conqueror of mo- 
dern time';, and destroying the most formidable army ever 
united under one head. 

Catharine II. was a great princess, well acquainted with 
the Russian character, politic, arbitrary, and ambitious. In 
diiVerent to the virtues of private life, she was \Qry anxious 
to imitate the greatest monarrhs, to give a splendour to her 
character and reign. Notwithstanding the vast extent of her 
empire, she made constant exertions to enlarge iis ijound;- 
The acquisitions she made from Persia, 'J'urkey. and Poland. 



.00 MOl^ERN IIISTORV. CHAT. \ 

wore equal lo an ordinary Huropcan kinj;«lom. — The gmal 
.hject of lior ainbltion, (luring her wlioK* rt'Uii was the |)i - 
L'ssion of {he Olloinan tliroi^o, luul llio expulsion of tli. 
Turk? from Europe. To tbi.-^ measure she was strongly ex- 
cited l»y tlie hereditary emnily between the llusrians and 
Turks, wliicb lias existed i\>r nges. It is said to have been 
lier wi-li to phire her second grandson, the present grand- 
tbikc C»)nstai;tine, on llie throne of the anci'jul Greek Empe- 
rors. 'J'he concpiest of that conn v\ m;»y, prihijis. yt !>p 
achieved by Russia. 

War broke out between tlicse two great empires in 17r>r», 
and, after a surcesMon of several sanguinary battles, which 
generally terminated in favo-rofthe Russians, %v;ib conchid- 
ed in 1774. At this peace Russia accpiired some addition ot 
tirritoi V, and a free navi^'ation of the lil ark Sen. In 1787 
war again t.ommcnced between Russia and Turkey, and con- 
tinued about two years. Tlie 1 ist action of the war was the 
-ie^e and capture of 1 iDfil, a large town near the month of 
the Danube, by t!»e famous Suwarrow, altende*! with that 
profusion of slaughter which has characterized the wars of 
!hcse empires. I'y the peace, Russia made some ▼vduable 
acquisitions. 

Catharine died of an apoplexy in 1796, and wa« succeed- 
ed by Raul, her oidy son. His intellectual powers were fet^ 
bio, and hi^ I'lStabiUt) and caprice \\ ere such as lo be impute." 
at times, to lunacy. Ji'he former part of his relKTi was pacitir 
In 1700, he wa?" induced to engaire in the war against France. 
His favourite commamler Suwarrow manhc d with a very 
formidable army to the south of Europe, and the singularity 
ofthe appearance of the troops inspired terror wherever they 
went. They engnged the Ere nch armies with irresistible re- 
solution, atul vi'tor> attended ;Umost every action. 'HaviRe; 
conquered tlir most of hajy, Suwarrow entered Switzerland, 
and appeared to be advancing to the heart of France. Had 
he been faithfully supported by the power of Austria, thei- 
was every reason to believe he would have rea'-h^d the 
French capital, and put an end to the dominion of the Direc- 
tory, and, probably, prevented the establishment of Uie im 
perial power. r»ut, from a jealousy ofthe sucresp of the 
Russian commander, as is commonly supposed, or from some 
other cause, the court of V'ionua separated their troops fro;n 
the Russians, and they alone were insullicient to encount' 
the «iuperior armies of France. Suwarrow retired indignaitt! 
froin tiio seat of war. By this time, the ititrigues of Fran« 
had produced a change m the unstable counsels of Russia, and 
efTcctcd a ]»ea^»- TIk army r^^^'irn'^d to thqirownco-mlrv 



.-.i. .. MODERN' H1ST0R\. 351 

with a knov.loflfte oTtlie southern power- aiul thoir mode ol' 
warfare , whirh was highly bonclicial in their sub>C4uent 
conllicls witli France. 

Paul died suchlcnly in lG0O,and, as was 2;en orally bolievrd, 
by violence. His eldest son Alexander, was iinnio iiately 
pr«)claimed emperor, at 22 years of age. The history of his 
reign is well known. He is reputed tlie greatest jnince of 
•the age. The fir-t years of his reign were pacific, and Eix- 
ropean statesmen apprehended that he was falling iinder the 
inlluence of the arts of France. In ICO.'j, however, Ujc 
alarming con*piesls of the French Emperor and ihe earnest 
solicitations of his enemies, engagctl the Russian court to 
unite willj them in resisting his progress. A Russian army 
joined a part of tlu- forces of Austria, and being attacked, un- 
expectedly, by the enemy, met with a signal defeat at the 
battle of Au-'terlitz. The Russians, having withilrawn to 
liieir own territory, advanced, the folhnvingycar, to succoitr 
the armies of Prussia, in the same cause. But the Pnissiari 
power was broken at .lena, before they could reach tlie scene 
of aclion. — In 1807, the whole of tlie Frencli torce was di- 
rected against the armies of Russia, under the command of 
Bcnr)ingsen. Several sanguinary and ol)rtinate !)attles were 
fought, on nearly enual terms. In tlie la-t, at Friedland, the 
Russii n army sulTered severely, and the peace of TiUit con- 
cluded the war. 

We have now arrived at tliat ^'i'.»iii.i juu 'imo, lnH'ore un- 
precedented in the history ofn>o«lern Kurope. Many be- 
lieved that a new Military Kmpire was now firndy establish- 
ed, that would, perhaps, berome as extensive, prcs^ as hea- 
vily, and last as long, as the Roman. Rut it w :ls lound that 
the race is not to the STvifty nor the buttle to the sirjng^ nor fa- 
vour to men of sliH. 

In the year 1J5I2, all the povvei*s of Chris'endom bowed 
before the power of the F'rench Kmpcror, and lent their as- 
sistance to arcomplisli tlie objects of hi-^ ambition, excepting 
Great l>ritain and Rus-tia. 'liic formcM' could not be reached 
by tlie armies of the conqturor ; the latter, he resolvcd.to 
suImIiic. The most powerful army ever air.iyed, led by one 
of ilie greatest of coutpieroi-s, entered tlie Russian empire on 
the 2 lib of June of that ye,'r. This army, possessing all tlie 
means of the mo-Jt formidable warfire, wa^i said to contain 
500,000 men. Their progress, for such a numerous host, 
was uncommonly rapid. The Piussians fo'jght .:nd hanissed 
tliem, at c\cvy opportunity, and retreated steadily before 
them, without sustaining any severe loss. Tiiese partial con- 
tests were very obstinate, and con=tantK dlmiinshcd the 



332 MODERN HISTORY. CHAP. V. 

strength and confidence of the invading foe. While the 
Russian commander in chief, Barclay de Tolly, did all that, 
could be expected from an officer, the emergency required 
that the illustrious veteran Kutusow, in whom Russia had un- 
limited conlidence, should take the command of her armies. 

A dangerous conspiracy was providentially discovered, at 
Petersburgh, by which it appeared that some of the first offi- 
cers of the court had been engaged in the interest and main- 
tained a correspondence with the French Emperor. They 
were punished in a summary manner. — All orders of men 
were now cordially devoted to the great cause, the common 
defence, and every person seen by the invaders was an ene- 
my. This was the first time that Buonaparte ever made war 
upon a united people, determined to maintain the liberties 
and independence of their cotmtry. The zeal, the persever- 
ance, and the sacrifices of the Russians, at this time, reilect 
upon them imperishable glory. Their houses and lands they 
cheerfully laid desolate, to cut ofl'the supplies of the invader. 
The Russian Church was ardently devoted to the common 
cause. The Emperor issued his prochimation, and, by one 
of the most solemn acts ever performed on earth, the united 
transaction of a vast empire, committed thirty milhons of 
people, and the Russian Church, to the holy keeping of God. 
Heaven heard the appeal and accepted the offering. 

Kutusow pursued the plan of his predecessor in the con- 
duct of the campaign, and carried it, probably, to a greater 
extent than any other person had conceived. While he de- 
signed to save Russia, he resolved on the utter ruin of his ad- 
versary. — A strong detachment of the French forces, sent 
towards Petersburgh, was defeated and compelled to retire. — 
Though the main army of the invaders was severely harassed, 
continually, it continued to advance, with great resolution, in 
hopes to decide the conflict in a single battle. The Russian 
army, well acquainted with the country, retreated before 
them, and the utmost efforts of the enemy to prevent the 
gallant Prince Bagration from uniting with the main body 
weTc ineffectual. 

At Borodino, a few miles in advance of Moscow, the Rus- 
sian Chief determined to make a stand. The position was 
strong, he was now in the heart of the empire, and, to retreat 
further might tend to dishearten his countrymen. Here was 
fought, on the 7th of September, 1812, the most powerful 
brittle recorded in history. The combination of physical 
strength, military skill, and determined valour, with self-pre- 
servation nnd a mighty empire at stake, gave to each conten- 
'ling army a greater forcg than has, probably, ever been pos- 



SECT. 3. MODERN HISTORY. 353 

sessed by any other in the field of battle. The action com- 
menced early in the morning, and continued till night. The 
numbers engaged are supposed to have been about equal, 
from 120,000 to 150,000, on each side. The loss was nearly 
equal, estimated at not less than 40,000 of each army. The 
immediate issue of the action was much the same, both par- 
ties claiming the victory with about equal pretensions. Yet 
the coasequences of the action were like a victory to the 
one, and a defeat to the other. 

The Russian army retired, in a few days beyond Moscow, 
and the French advanced with ardour, expecting to enjoy a 
quiet winter in that ancient metropolis. Before they enter- 
ed it, it was set on fire by the loyal inhabitants, and mostly 
consumed. The calamity of the invaders was now com- 
plete. An unconquerable army was before them, the hosti- 
lity of the country had risen to exasperation, their only safe- 
ty was in immediate retreat. Yet, by an unaccountable in- 
fatuation, this was delayed till the middle of October. The 
retreat then commenced, and was continued with disaster 
and suffering, not to be described, The Russians pursued 
their enemy with insatiable vengeance, the winter soon 
commenced with unprecedented rigour, and, of this vast ar- 
my led into Russia in the preceding summer, it is not likely 
that more th m one tenth of the number ever reached their 
native countries. The French Emperor was never formed 
to conduct a retreat. 

Buonaparte left his perishing troops, returned to France, 
and collected a new army. The Russians advanced to the 
encounter in the heart of Europe. The Emperor Alexander 
accompanied his army and v/as at the head of the coalition. 
The venerable Kutusow sunk under the weight of care, of 
labour, and of years, and expired at the age of seventy-tive. 

The campaign of 1813, was distinguished wjth many hard 
fought battles, the former partof which fell, principally, upon 
the Russians. The enemy, however, was ultimately com- 
pelled to fly, with the loss of the greater part of his forces. — 
Early in the year 1814, the respective sovereigns entered 
France, dethroned Buonaparte, and restored the house of 
Bourbon to the throne. The eyes of the world were fixed 
on Alexander and his brave Russians, as the means, under 
God, of accomplishing this revolution, the greatest of mo- 
dern times. The three sovereigns of Russia, Austria, and 
Prussia, then e^atered into a solemn treaty, signed by their 
owm hands, mutually stipulating to conduct toward each 
other, and other sovereigns, and their own subjects, accord- 
ing to the great and perfect principles of the christian reli- 

31 



J54 MODERN HISTORY. CHAP. V. 

!^ion. This is denominated the Holy League, and most of 
the sovereigns ot Europe h;ive since acceded to the solemn 
engagement. — The subsequent conduct of Alexander in 
peace, has been worthy of the name he acquired in war. 



SECTION IV. 



EVEiNTS IS POLAND. 



This country, favoured with the gifts of nature, has lona; 
been one of tiie most unfortunate kingdoms of Europe. Tlie 
soil is fertile and watered by several noble rivers, the cli- 
mate is not severe, the most of the counliy is capable of 
cultivation, the territory is compact, and justly merits the 
apj)ellation long given it, " The granary of Europe." But 
for wantx)f a form of government which could maintain tlie 
administration of jiistice, restrain civil contentions, and di- 
rect the strength of the country against foreign enemies, tlif y ij 
have always been a prey to internal comniotit)ns and external ' 
wars. Always surroiinded by powerful neighbours, tluse 
have ever been ready to take advantage of their internal 
weakness and the strifes of tlie nobility The feudal system 
«f tlio Gothic ages still remains in Poland, though without 
the military vigour and the prudent frugality of those times. 
Almost all the woaltli and j)0wer of the country are possess- 
ed by the nobility, who hold the peasants in a most degraded 
state. Such a state of society is encouraged by the Catholic 
Keli;:;ion, wliif ji i«? the prevailing denomination in Poland, 
though Lutherans, Calvlnists, and Jews are tol-riled, and are 
considerably numerous. The king is elected by the nobles, 
and his powers are so limited that the govermnent is deno- 
minated a Kepubbc, about as justly as a monarchy. TIk 
election of the king is attended with great cabals, and the 
succes^jful candidate is generally forced to favour the views 
of the prevailing taction, or the foreign power by whose in- 
fluence he has obtained the crown. A foreign prince has 
been set on the tlirone al)out as often a* a nati\e of the coun- 
try. The government not hivin'j; strength sulli; lent to pre- 
vent the contests of tlie nobles, the country is seldom en- 
lirely free from civil war. 

Tiie most distinguished monarch in the history of Poland 
is John Sobieski, a native of the country, who, for his emi- 
nent virtues and extraordinary military talents, was elected 
king in the year 107 J. The kingdom having suffered se- 



SECT. 4. MODERJf HISTORY. 35o 

verely in thtur wars with the Turks, Sobiesj^ought those 
obstinate enemies ol' christian countries with TO^mo^t deter- 
mined valour and perseverance, drove them out of Poland 
and made an honourable peace. He secured his kingdom 
against foreign invasion on every side, and gave a convincing 
proof, to Poland and Europe, of the strength of his country, 
when its resources are properly directed. In 1G83, the king 
of Poland was earnestly solicited by the House of Austria to 
aiford assistance to the Emperor in a war with the Turks, in 
which he appeared likely to sink under the power of that for- 
midable enemy. The Turks had marched to the heart of the 
empire, and were besieging Vienna with the most sanguine 
expectations of success. Sobieski advanced with his brave 
Poles, who bore an inveterate enmity to the Turks, and, be- 
ing joined by the Austrian army, tiieir whole force did not 
exceed 50,000 men. Sobieski took the command, advanced 
to the environs of the capital, and fought the most memora- 
ble and important battle of the age. The victorv was com- 
plete. A well appointed army of nearly C0O,00o'Turks was 
defeated with great slaughter, with the loss of but six hundred 
men in the christian army. The great Ottom:m standard, 
180 pieces of cannon, and the immense treiisures of the 
Turkish camp fell into the hands of the victors : and the Sa- 
racens were prevented from making, perhaps, a permanent 
estahUshment in the heart of Christendom. Sobieski imme-'^ 
diately rendered public thanks to the God of armies who had 
made him the instrument of achieving so great a victory. — 
This deliverance of the empire, by the king and army of Po- 
land, the House of Austria have never »!uly acknowledge*!. 
Sobieski died in IGPtJ, and left his counhy in prosperity 
and peace. The factious nobles soon showed themselves un- 
worthy the privilege of such a sovereign. His vigilance and 
energy imposed a restraint upon their restless ambition to 
which they submitted with the utmost reluctance. Unwil- 
ling to place any one of his family on the throne, they choge, 
after some time, Augustus, Elector of Saxony, who had been 
distinguished in the war with the Turks, for their king. In 
1699, Augustus engaged in war with the king of Sweden, not 
knowing the character of the youth, Charles XII, who then 
occupied the Swedish throne. The martial genius of the 
Swede and his brave troops carried victorywhereverhe went, 
and, so inveterate was his hostility, that he would listen to no 
terms till he had dethroned Augustus and placed Stanislaus, 
a native of Poland, on the throne of his kingdom. He was, 
however, insufficient for the turbulent st.ition in which he 
was placed, and. after the ruin of Charles, at the battle of 



obG MODERN HISTORT. CHAP. Y. 

Piiltou-a, by^^ler tlie Great, he was deposed, and Augus- 
tus was restored. Tliis uionarch died in 173?i,and was suc- 
ceeiled hy his son. 

The kin::(loni remained in a very »in(iiiiet state Tor many 
years after the deatli of SoI)ieski, ocrasioned jiaitiv h\ fo- 
reign wars, partly by the contests of different claimants of the 
crown, and still more by controversies on the subject of re- 
liifion. The Protestants contcnclid for an equality in the 
privileges of the lav\-5 and the patronage of the government. 
To this the Catholics, the more arjcient and more numerous 
j)arty, would not consent. The controversy was long and 
tierce, and productive of great evils to the nation. The go- 
rernment favoured the Catholics, but did not possess suffi- 
ciei;t \ i<iour to put an end to the contention?. 

In 1772, the Kmperor of Germany, the Kmprcss of Rus- 
sia, and kin;:; of Pru^^-^ia entered into a combination to divide 
and dismember the kingtli>m of l^oland. An act of pert'idv, 
of injustice, and lawless oppression, scarcely paralleled in the 
hist«)ry of n.itions. Each of these power-s had, in their turn, 
'cceived great favo«irs from the government and armies of 
j'oland, and had solemrdy guaranteed the integrity and se- 
curity of the kingdom. With no motive but their own ac- 
commodation, and no right but power, they now ap})ropriat- 
ed certain portions of the Polish territory to each one, in- 
cl'j ling nearly one half of the kingd(»m, and engaged to sup- 
port the claims of each other. Perpetual divisions in the 
l\dish councils, and the mutual animosities of the nobility, 
encouraged the neighbouring powers to adopt this violent 
measur*', and prevented the Poles from vindicating their in- 
alienable rights. 'i'he Diet was assembleii, and, by the 
threats of n)ilitary execution, the king and the principal no- 
bility were compelled to sign an instrument, by whic h the 
territories in tpiestion were cetled to tlie u^^Mrping powers. 

The resources of the nation being thus diminished, this 
uniiaj)j»y kinjjilom became '•till more exposed to the insatia- 
ble (Mipidity of avarice and aml»ition. In 1793, a new trea- 
ty ot I'artition wa«^ entered into by Austria, Russia, and 
l'rii?>>ia, in which they engJ'god to divide the whole of the 
remaining part of this devoted country. As the respective 
armies were advanring to accomplish this work of violence, 
in 170 1, the spirit of the Poles seemed to ron«e in vindication 
of their expiring liberties. Kosciusko, who had been a dis- 
tinguished officer in this country in the war of the Revolu- 
lion, was placed at their head, and eminently sustained the 
important trust, 'i'he want of time to extend the patriotic 
dame tirst enkindled, to arm and discipline the numbers 



SECT. 1= iWDER.V HISTORV. 357 

flocking to the standard of independence, to collect the mili- 
tary stores which were dispersed over the kingdom, ])revent" 
ed this noble eft'ort, on which the hopes of the world were 
Hxed, from its merited success. The nrmies of llussiaand 
Prussia advancing with promptitude on the difi'erent sides of 
the kingdom, Kosciusko was compelled to meet them in 
the tield. Love of country and an honest indignation at the 
violence ot their enemies, tired the breasts of his followers, 
anxl, in a meiisure, supplied the place of numbers. In a se- 
ries of severe actions the Poles generally had the advantage, 
and their enemies were compelled to raise the sioge of War- 
saw, after lying more than a month before the city. In Sep- 
tember, a severe battle was fought by Kosciusko and his 
countrymen against a superior Russian army, in which the 
Polish leader w;is severely wounded and taken prisoner. His 
army was defeated and broken. The victors then united 
with the Prussian army and returned to the siege of Warsaw. 
The city W;;s taken by assauU, after a desp(^rate contlict of 
eight hours. The sanguinary Russians sufl'ered their troops 
to continue their ma«sacre and pillage some time .'ftor resist- 
ance had ceased. The destru( tion of lives, on the part of 
the miserable Poles, was very great. The unfortunate mo- 
narch, Stanislaus Augu-^tus Pouiatowski, was dethroned, and 
kept as an honourable prisont^r by the EmpiL':?s of Russia, 
and died at Petersburgh, Februiirv 1798. Kosciusko reco- 
vered from his wounds, but was htld a prisoner at Peters- 
bwrgh till the dealh of the Kmpressin 17137. He was releas- 
ed by her successor and favoured with a pension. He has 
"^ince been in Am«Mi(a. — The Poles have made no further 

fort to regain their independence. 
In the just retributions of Divine Providence, those three 
partitioning pow«^is have sufTered terribly in the ir late wars 
with France. They saw, at one lime, all Poland under the 
command of the French Emperor, aud their own thrones 
'rembling lor existence.! 



CHAPTKll Vf. 

SKETCHES OP Tlir HISTORY OF TURKF.V 

The Ottoman Empire, lying in Europe, Asia, and Africu, 
may be safely said to include the fairest portion of the earth 
In a most delightful climate, pofsessinti;a >v\\ of great fertili- 
ty, intersected with various seas and navigable rivers which 



'i5C MODERN UISTOnV, C FfAP. VI. 

0[>en nr\ ijilcrcourse witli all countrici?, ii is t^ituated, a;? far 
a;? the t'xprc!^sioii can be applied, in the midst ol the world. 
1q this territory the Most High fixed the people of his ancient 
covenant, and here was performed the great work ot "man's 
redemption. No thoughlt'ul traveller ran ever pa«<s over this 
consecrated tract, without reflecting that he may tread in the 
footsteps of the apostles and prophets of the li\ingCiod, — In 
this territory are also to be recollected the illustrious scenes 
of ancient patriotism and pagan virtue. Here were the fields 
of Marathon and Leuctra, the straits of Thermopylae, and 
the sea of Salamis. 

The most splendid period of the Turkish history i« that 
which i-^ noticed in the former j)art of thiii work, the sixteenth 
centurv. That was the age of Solyman and the Selims, the 
mo-t illustriou« princes of the Ottoman race. The blow re- 
ceived bv their marine in the battle of Lepanto, 1671, seem- 
f(l to be irrepai'nble : tlie Tiirki-^h navy has never been so 
powerful since that fatal day. In the next century the Otto- 
man power continued undiminished, though it became mani- 
fest that the ardour of contpit^vt and the spirit of military en- 
tcrjtrise were sensibly abatrd. 'I'he wealth of the empirr 
ina<le the army dissolute, and they were no longer those hai- 
dv advetiturers who had loni: bi'on invincible in arms. 

It wa< lon<; a maxim uitli the 'i'urks, lint no peace should 
be uKule with infidi'N. i'hey viewed >ill christian nations as 
hostile to theii- relii;ior), an«l they held it their duty to treat 
them a>< perprtii il enemies. — The most active power in 
Christendom, and the one possessing the greatest maritime 
force, at the time of the e>ifabli-hnif' nt of the Ttirks in f ji- 
ropo. and for a century after, was Venice, between tli^ 
Ottoman power and the famous republic, various causes m 
(:olli-ion constantly existed, nnd they were in a state of war, 
♦he greater part of the time, for 160 years. And it is un- 

loubtedly owimr to the extraordinary and persevering exer- 
tions of that small commerc ial state, that a groat proportion 

»f Kurcpe wa« not sul»je{ tctl to Mahometan j)0wer. While 
tho armies of the Crescent were superior in the art of war to 
those oftlie christian kinicdoms, while the resources of the 
Sultans conld swell them to any amount, the navy, the wealth, 

ml the wisdom of Venice were the bulwaik of C'hristendom. 

The sMperiority of the Turks in war was owing, principally, 
♦ o the Janizaries, an order of men devoted exclusively to 
ihe profession of arms, and to their great use of artillery. — 
As the Empire of Germany was contiguous to that of the 
Grand Seignor, and the latter was always making encroach- 
ments, they were seldom in a state of peace. 



SECT. 1. MODERN HISTORV. 359 

The Island of Candia in the Mediterranean, the ancient 
Crete, distinguished tor its situation as an emporium for 
commerce, and being in a very flourishing state under the 
management of the Venetians, aflbrded a tem])tation to 1 urk- 
ish cupidity too strong to be resisted. The island had been 
in the possession of the Venetians from the year li;U4. The 
Ottoman court having made several unsuccessful attempts to 
get possession of it m their wars with the republic, resolved 
on an eflbrt for that purpose in time of peace. A very for- 
midable armnment was fitted out at Constantinople, while 
the V enetian ambassadors were solemnly assured that Malta 
was the object of the expedition, and no hostile purpose was 
entertained against any part of their dominions. '1 he lleet, 
however, having left the Hosphorus, sailed direct to Candia, 
with bO,00(J troops, and landed on the inland williout opposi- 
tion, in the year l(i45. Unprepared for the encounter of 
such an host, two or three towns were soon surrendered to 
the invaders. The Tu^ki^h army tb.en invested Candia, the 
capital, and commenced one of the most memorable sieges 
of modern times. It lasted twcnty-tive years. For the two 
last years, it was jtushed with ;dl the vigour of Turkish pow- 
er, inflamed by disappointed ambition. The city surrender- 
ed in 1(J70, on honourable terms. The defenre was one of 
the most honourable in niilit'nry annals. In the last two 
years and four months of the siege, it is said the Venetians 
and their allies lost 30,0CtU lives, and the besiegers 118,1)00 ; 
The city withstood 56 assaults and made 96 sallies upon the 
besiegers ; The Venetians discharged 276,743 cannon-balls, 
48,110 bombs, and consumed rjO.317 barrels of jtowder. 
/rhis dear bought conquest has remained witli tin- Turks 
ever since. A peace ensued. 

The next important war between the 'J'urks and Cin istiaus 
was that which commenced in 1683, in which the Ottoman 
army advanced through Hung;iry and besieged Vienna, and 
received a great overthrow, as has been already related. 
The war continued alter that defeat, and was, for the most 
part, on the side of the Turks, a series of disasters. At the 
same time, it bore heavily upon fTormany. J>oth parties 
tired of the contest, it would ])robal>ly have terminated much 
sooner but for the intrigues of the French kine, who, in order 
to luimble the House of Austria, kept an ambassador at the 
Porte using every exertion to induce the Sultan to continue 
the war. The English and Dutch Courts both ofl'ered their 
mediation to affect a peace, but such was the intluence of 
France that it was procrastinated many years while the con- 
tending parties were really desirous <?( such an event. — It 



SbO MODERN niSTORV. CHAP VT 

h:is been the fortune of Turkey to be viewed by tlie ndjarenl 
countries as h coiunion enemy, and %vlie[i she wa?* at >\ar 
with one, others, with slight provocation, would engage in 
tlie content. In tlie [)resent war, Peter the Cireat of Ku!?«ia, 
who liad jii«t beijun to he known, entered the Turkl^h terri- 
tories, witli a hir^e army, in 1696, took the important town 
of Asoph, near the Black Sea, and ravaged the adjacent 
country. The Ottoman court, though dispirited by their 
losses, would not deign to solicit a peace, and resolved to 
make still further elVorls in the field. In l()jn was fought 
the great battle ol Zenta, the Germans commanded by Prince 
Kugene, in which the Turkish army was totally overthrown 
In the year following negotiations were opened, and, in the 
i^eginning of lb JO, the peace of Carlovitz was concluded be- 
tween all the conternling powers. The Turks lost by this 
wai-, which lasted filteen years, some valuable territory, 
much nulitary reputation, and immense treasures. Cireat 
discQiilonts appeirrd among the people, it was now nppar- 
•Mit that the over»vhelming power of the Ottomans was irrc 
• overably broken. 

In 171.'), the Oiiotnan court declared war ag-ainst Venice, 
ind, soon, against Austria, as her ally. A powerful army 
marched into Hungary, but was tolallv <h'f«;ited bv princ« 
!>ugeue, in the i^icat batlle of Peterwar.uiin, in ITlti. 1 h« 
year following, the same Prince besieged and took the stroni. 
to\vu of l)eli:rade, and defeated the Turks in a very sever* 
action uinler its walN. 'J'liis compclh'd the Ottoman comi 
♦ o make the disadvantageous peace of Passarowitz, in 1718. 

!'r.)m this event the tondness for war in the Turkish em- 
pire sensibly declined. I'he modern discipline (if European 
armies was evidently superior to theirs. Frequent collisions. 
howe\er, took place between the Turks and Hussians, who 
can never continue fong at peace. The descendants of the 
ancient Greeks, being kept in con.stant subjection by the 
i'urks, must feel a natural ])artiality for the Russians who 
profess the religion of the (ireek Church. This circumstance 
necessarily excites a constant jealousy of the I»u«*sians in the 
Ottoman court. — In the year 1769 these two great emj»ires 
enuaged in a furious and sanguinary war, which continued 
till 177-4. An incredible number of lives were sacrificed in 
:?ieges and battle*, the greater part of which were on the side 
of the Turks. — In the ( ourse of tliis war a Russian fleet sail- 
e«l to the -Archipelago, seized a part of the Alorea, and the 
Greeks flocked to the Russian standard in such numbers, 
that soon the whole peninsula was in a state of revolt. This, 
however, had httle eflect, but to i^how the discontent of the 



SECT. 1. MODERxV HISTORY. 361 

people under the Turkish yoke. The Rui?sian admiral gain- 
ed a naval victory and destroyed the Turkiirh fleet, but am 
army of the Sultan reduced the revolted country, punishing 
many of the inhabitants with great severity. 

The Ottoman court, having ever been dissatisfied with the 
humiliating terms of the late peace, commenced hostilities 
against Russi.i in 1797, with whom the Emperor of Germany 
united against the Turks, 'n this war, vast numbers of men 
were lost by all parties, by the sword and disease. The last 
action of consequence was the capture of the strong town of 
Ismail, and the massacre of the inhabitants, by the Russians, 
December 1790. In this war, the Russian general Kutusow 
was highly distinguished. Peace was made in the beginning 
of 1792, in which the former concessions of the Turks were 
contirmed. 

Ever since the establishment of the Ottoman power in 
Europe, they have had frequent collisions in the east, with 
the empire of Persia. Some of their conflicts have been 
sanguinary, but not of long duration. Bagdad, on the river 
Tigris, the ancient seat of the Mahometan Caliphs, has often 
been taken and retaken by the contending parlies, but has 
generally been, as at present, in the hands of the Turks. 

For a century past, the Ottoman empire has been evident- 
ly on the decline, and a})pears to be hastening to it<5 dissolu- 
tion. The court and army are immersed in -vice, and the 
great mass of the population is in a state of extreme depres- 
sion. The descendants of the ancient Greeks view the go- 
vernment as not tlioir own, and earnestly look for an eman- 
cipation from its dofninion. The whole administration of 
the government is generally placed by the emperor in the 
hands of the grand Vizier, who tyrannizes at pleasure, while 
his master pays little attention to the public interests. Dis- 
contents, conspiracies, and tumults are frequent, which often 
issue in the death of the grand vizier, who is sacrificed to the 
public resentment. The administration of a vizier docs not, 
ordinarily, continue more than two or three years. The dis- 
contents frequently extend to the monarch, and arc not al- 
layed but by his removal from the tlirone. A number of the 
Sultans, since the reign of Solyman, have died violent deaths. 
— The Janizaries have become as corrupt as the Pra'torian 
guards of Rome, ruid, like tliem, controul. in a great measure, 
the government of the empire. 



3(32 MODERN HISTORV. CHAP. VII. 

CHAPTER VII. 

OBSERVATIONS OX THE HISTORY OF ORIENTAL COUNTRIES. 

The Nations of Asia, the largest and most ancient portion 
of the globe, aft'ord nun-iberless objects of historic investiga- 
tion, calculated to excite the deepest interest ; jet the re- 
searches of modern times have been in a great degree unsuc- 
cessful in their attempts to bring to light the true history of 
those populous countries. But little is known of tlie great 
events which have there occurred since the conclusion of the 
sacred history ; and many of the testimonies we have are so 
indifferently authenticated, thnt a connected series of histonj 
is hardly to be expected. With certain disconnected facts, 
writers may form systems of their own, and supply interme- 
diate vacuities, but cannot make historic truth. Several 
causes have conspired to produce this state of things. The 
enervated minds of the Asiatics cannot easily perform the 
arduous labour requisite to tlie compilation of extensive his- 
tories : and it may well be presumed that works of this kind 
have been comparativel}' few. Some of the eastern empires 
have a characteristic aversion to all entercourse withforrigjn- 
ers, and retain their learning and arts, as far as possible, 
amonj: themselves. The western countries of Asia have 
been subject, for nearly twelve centuries, to the errors and 
prejudices of the Mahometan religion, and have been stong- 
1}' alienated from christian nations, where the learninj: of mo- 
dern times has priocipally, centered. For these and other 
reasons, little is known of the people of Asia, except what 
is obtained through the intercourse of a limited commerce. 

The most important do)nin!oa that has existed in Asia, 
since tiie time of the empires of anliriuity, is that of the Ma- 
hometan Caliphs, whose seat w.js at Dagdad, on the rivar Ti- 
gris. The Caliphs were the successors of Mahomet, and ex- 
ercised >\i])reme temporal and sj)iritual dominion over the 
wbole Moslem Empire. They clHiuK-il, as successors of the 
Propliet, the same rights which had been held by him.* 

This extraordinary empire was founded by Mahomet, the 
great impostor of Arabia, and being governed by a retined 
system of civil policy, as well .as u scheme of religion emi- 
nently suited to engage the affections an<l enlist the passions 
of men, it became extensive, powerful, and lasting. The in- 

* The term Kaliph, as written by eastern authors, is Archie^ 
signifying Successor. 



il 



SECT. 1. MODERN HISTORY. ti63 

ternal concerns of the empire were administered with so 
much prudence, that it was seldom convulsed with intestine 
war. The Caliphs were elected to their high office by the 
principal men of the empire, or, more commonly, succeeded 
hy the nomination of their predecessors. 

The commencement of the Moslem Empire is generally 
fixed at the year of the Christian iEra 622. From that pe- 
riod, the power and inlluence of the prophet rapidly increas- 
ed lill the time of his death, in C32. Five succeeding Ca- 
liphs, of the connexions of Mahomet, had short reigns, ex- 
tending to the year 661. The fourth of these was Ali, who 
m.irricd the daughter of the prophet, and the lifth was Ha- 
san, son of Ali and Fatema. This daughter was the only 
child of Mahomet that survived him. — But the military men, 
(and such were all the principal characters of the empire at 
that time,) would not sufler the Cali}>hate to be held, merely, 
by^ hereditary right. Ali, who was one of the best of the 
Caliphs, was assassinated, and Hasan was compelled to re- 
sign his power. Moawiyah, an able general, of the house of 
Ommiy.ih succeeded, in 661. Fifteen Caliphs ofthi^ house 
rcij^ried till the year 749. Al S.ifl'ah then succeeded to the 
Caliphate, of the house of Abbas. Few royal f^imilies have 
produced a succession of more illustrious princes than this. 
Thirty-seven Caliphs of tliis house reigned in succession, till 
the tinal ruin of tiie Caliphate, in the year 1268. 

The first Culipbs and these of the house of Ommiyah had 
their residence, principally, at Damascus. Al Mansur, the 
second Caliph of the house of Abbas, and one of the most 
illustrious of his line, built the city of Bagdad, on both sides 
of the river Tigris, near the site of the ancient Seleucia, and 
made it his capital. This continued to be the seat of the 
Caliphs till the conclusion of the mon;*Tchy. The city of 
Bagdad, in one of the finest situations of the world, the cap- 
ital of a great empire, and the great medium of intercourse 
between Europe and Asia, soon became great and powerful, 
and was, ultimately, one of the most opulent, sj)lcndid, and 
populous cities that has ever been. It was the seat of ele- 
gance and politeness, and the centre of the arts and learning 
of the times. By the munificent patronage of the Caliphs, 
Colkires for the sciences and the arts were established in the 
capital, as well as in other parts of the empire, some of wJiich 
had a great number of able Professors, and wore \cr\ richly 
endowed. The Arabic language was highly cultivated and 
improved. The science of Medicine was carried to a height 
whi< h it has probni»ly not attained since that time. In the 
middle ages, when learning and the .art* were greatly depres- 



304 MODERN* IIISTOnV. trUP. VII. 

sjcd in Europe, tlioy were, in tlii-s nianiuM', proserveil and cul- 
tivated by the Mahometan.^ of A??ia. vVhonever that country 
shall become opened to n liberal intercourse with christian 
nations, valuable treasures of useful knowledge may be ex- 
pccieJ to be found. 

>\s the Arabs are, constitutionally, addicted to war, the 
profession of ariu> was always in lii^h estimation among the 
M'»hom<;tans. It was on this arcount, more than any other, 
that the Caliphs ac(|uired such an extensive and durable em- 
pire. Their reli^^ious system was calcul itoil to encourage 
wars of aggrandizement and conquest. Wuhin a century al'- 
ter the death of !\Iahumet, the empire nhich he had founded 
was more extensive than th.it of the Humans. 

In the year 712, a detachment of the Moslem troops passed 
from Africa into Spain, defeated Koileric tlie last king of 
the Goths, and estal)lished a Saracen kinmh^m in that coun- 
try. Almost the >\ hole of Spain was subdue*! by their arms, 
in a few years, and their kingtiom lloiirished for several ages. 
In the tenth and eleventh centuries it was the most refined 
♦ kin;;dom west of the Greek empire. The perpetual wars 
between tlie Saracens ami (-'hrisiiaiis in Spain, k<j»l up an ac- 
tivity and intellectual vigour in that country, while the great- 
er part of rhri^leridoin was sunk in iipathy . — The .Moors were 
Hnallv driven from Spain, and the tl«)mmion of the Saracens 
in that kingdom destroyed, by Ferdinand and Isabella, the 
sune year that their great Admiral Columbus discovered 
America, 1402. 

There was a constant intercourse between the empire of 
llie Caliphs and that of the Greeks whose seat was at Constan- 
tinople. There were, indeed, several fierce wars between 
llicni, but for the most of the time, they were in a state of 
peace. Christians were generally tolerated, in agre-jteror 
less degree, in the Moslem empire. In some instances cha- 
racters highly di^tinguishe'l for genius and learning, and pui)- 
lic estimation, wj»re christians. 

n.i'^dad was conquered by Hula« u, a ferocious Tartar, in 
the veir lJo8, the Caliph .Mostasem was put to death, and 
the C diphate abolished. — Trsvious to this time, the govern- 
ors ofoxl'Misive province5, with the title of Sultans, paid lit- 
tle m">re th.in a nominal suVmissif)n to th" Caliphs, governed 
thfMr dominions chiefly by their own power, and usually 
tran-miited thc-m to their sons. As the Moslem dominions 
had no longer a common head, after the abolition of the Ca- 
liphate, they became tliviiled into several independent king- 
do !is, undiT tlie goveinment of the Sullans. — One of tiic 
most distinguished of thcoe was Salladin, Sultan of S^ria, 



>vt^,_l. 1. i'oULRN mSTuRV. o6i} 

who lived in the time of the Caliphs, and died in 1 193. He 
is reputed the greatest v. .irrior of the iMoslem Empire. He 
was the great enemy of the Crusaders, and the principal 
means of arresting the christian conquests in Asia. He took 
Jerusalem from the chrislians in 1 187, after they had held it 
OO years. The crusade which was soon undertaken for it^ 
recovers, hy Frederic Bprbarossa Emperor of Gormnnj'. 
Philip Augustus king of France, and Richard I. of England, 
would undoubtedly, have reduced all Palestine and Egypt, 
but for the talents and perseverance of Sallad.in. Aller seve- 
ral tierce encounters between him and Uichanl, without any 
decisive issue, they concluded a truce for three y'ears, in 
119?. Uichard returned to Europe, and Salladin died the 
following year. Nothing could more clearly evince the pur- 
pose of divine Providence that Palestine should noi, at that 
period, return to the hands of the christians, than the raising 
up of tlie first of Mahometan heroes for its defence, at the 
time that the united effort^ of wo«<terr( Europe were direct- 

! to its conquest. 

The Empire of Per~i.i li.i- > >^iinii .« 1 iwi t.. ... i^. ,..'.«. j v.ai- 
with less changes than any other kingdom of the world thai 
is so well known. Though several times concpicred, their 
lorm of government and their state of society has :*eldom un- 
dergone any material chnnge. They have never attained to 

liigh degree of civilization, and have never been so low as 
most other of the Asiatic !dngdom«. Their religion was first 
taught by Zoroaster, being an imitation and corruption of 
that of the Jews, and, of course, nearer to the true religion, 
than any other of the pagan world. The Polytheism which 
has infected the greater part of pagan countries, J[ias never 
prevailed to any considerable degree among the Persians. 
When subdued by the Saracens, there was not a sufficient 
diflorencc between the religion of Mahomet and their own to 
make n visible change in their national character. — This em- 
pire is great and populous, enervated hy luxury and indo- 
lence, yet, independent and governed hy its own monarchs 
and laws. The t*acred Book of Esther gives a more correct 
and perspicuous account of Persian manners than any other 
writing known in christian countries. In tlio customs ol 
eastern nations, the lapse of ages makes but liitle cliangc. 
The domestic manners described by Homer, near 3000 years 
ago, are found in Turkey, in a good degree, at this day. 

Since the discovery of the passage to Ihc Indies by the 
Portuguese, in M97,by the Cape of Good Hope, the maritime 
uHtions of Europe have been very solicitous to obtain posses- 
-ions in Asia. The greater part of the islands in tlic Asiatic 

3C 



i.u MODERN HISTORY. f IIAI'. Vlll. 

-crx, with some important stations on the niain land, h;\\\ 
''■ivj: been heKl, and !-lill arc, by European uionarchsJ. The 
possessions of Great Britain, in the va?t empire of llindostun, 

ire greater than have ever been held by any other Kuropean 
power, and arc said to contain 60,000,000 of inhabitants. 
Tlie commerce of the Indies has always enriched every 
• otiritry that has been extensively engaged in that tnilTic. 

All European nations that have had possessions in Asi:^ 
have made efforts to introduce Christianity among the native 
tf the cyuntrv. None of the:-c Iwive been wholly unsuc- 
cessful. / The C'alhulics have rerkontd a far greater number 
-»f con^4rts than Protestants. But the former have rctpiire*! 
litth' more than a nominal profession of the Chri>tiaj» name, 
and the suinemacy of the Tope, without the purity and 
ri;^hteousnc.«s of the gospel. The Protestant Missions have 
mculcated the religion of Christ, in a good dt^jrree of purity, 

ii:d have broui^ht many, apparently, to a <'ordial acceptance 
. f the divine .S.iviour.l Tho!i;jh these efforts and their effects 
iiavc been small, wheA compared with the many millions of 
i; -^iortal beings inhabt* • ' tt part of the worhl, they mav 
11 be expected to f . the more important exertioi. 

MOW making and still to be m.it!e for the nccomplishmenl of 

( introducctl, in the beginning of the seven 

tcenth century, in the great empire of Japan, and made for a 
of years =» vr ' * ' '•, the 

hictof th' Jes'ji — , ;»'' 

IS i;<!ncrhlly understood, excited the jealousy of the govern 
•»< -it, and produced a public order, in the year IClo, for the 
» nine ■>•''>"■ --ion of the neu religion. A violent persecution 
immodi mmenccd against all that wouhl not renounce 

Mie Chrisliau name ; it wa-* carried on t\ ith '- 

I ous cruelly, and did not ceaie till chrislianilj. - d 

!iom the empire. The Japanese have entertai! -L 

violent prejudices against Christianity ever since. 

CIIAPTRR Mil. 

-ICETCIIF.S OF Jlir. lIlSTunV OF AMKUICV. 

SECTION I. 

A BRIEF View or ARORiaiNAI. AMRRICA, AND TIIC PARTS 
CLAIMKD BY EUROPEAffS. 

Ar the first discovery of America by the European*?, it wnj 
1. '1111. 1 to be iuhabittd bv '\ v.wc of mon of d vliffcrcnt charac- 



SECT. 1. MODCRX UISTOUV. 361 

ter from any known to exist on the eastern continent. None 
of the tribes of the human race are more averse to the habits 
of civilized life than the Aborigines of America. These nu- 
merous tribes have been const:int!y diminishing, iVom the 
lime of the first settlement of Europeans on tiiis coiitinent, 
and they are still declining as rapidly as at any former period. 
There is nearly one half of tliis continent that is now held, 
exclusivel}', by the native Indians. These obtain their sub- 
sjgtence, in a small decree, by the cultivation of the earth, 
but, principally, Hccordimr to the usual practice oT the rudest 
nations, by huntini; and lishing. The principal seats o(^thc 
tribes are commonly on the banks of rivers. The most of 
the rivers in North America arc still known by the Indian 
name?. 

Notwithi«tanding their wide separation from the manner? of 
civilized society, the atteQipts that have been made to civilize 
and christianize those savages, have not been unsuccessful. 
The success has been a^ great as could be expected, in pro- 
portion to the means used, and the obstacles to be encounter- 
ed. Unj)rinripled men have always found that by corrupting 
the Indians, they couKl make gain in thcirtraOic; and. is all men 
learn vice more readily than virtue, the tflbrtsof the wicked 
have frustrated, in a ureal degree, the benevolent exertions 
that have been made to bring these benighted pagans to the 
knowledge and service of the living God. The success which 
has attended all judirioiis efforts for this purpose, notwiih- 
«lan«ling such formidable discouragements, is sulli|;iont to 
stimulate to future exertion, if pro[)er pains are taken to pre- 
vent the natives from suffering by tlie framls, and learning the 
corrtiptions. of civilized vice. T'he early settlers ofthe coun- 
try had much greater success in their attempts to christianize 
the luflians, than those who have made similar excr:ions iu 
later time.-?. The rca>«on must be, the Indians had not the.i 
been so much corrupted and abused as they have been since. 
— The present prospect, concerning these ancient tribes of 
America, is that a i)art of them will become incorporated nit!i 
the descendants of Europeans in civilized society, and the 
residue, probably the much greater proportion, will bcc©me 
extinct. 

The American Continent, having been originally discover 
ed and settled by the Spaniards, the greater part of South 
America ha.^ been claimed and held by iIk in ever since. 
Finding that some parts of the country ji...^.-v.,] iinnirn<-f 
treasures ofthe ]>rccious metals, they exten. col'M)i<> , 

with ;;reat rapidity, from Mexico to the suutliei u e\tn mity 
vf the continent, on the ea'-J* m and western o< can. (Ulier 



JuJ MODEHN HISTORV. «iiAl. \ili. 

TAiropcan kingdoms' saw the value of the western continent, 
and sought to acquire American i)osse*?ions. The Portu- 
iiucsc procured an extensive and valuahle territory in South 
America, nhilo, in Nerlh America, extensive colonies were 
rstablii>hed by (Jrcat Britain. The possessions ofthe French 
have been, at some periods, large and valuable, but, for many 
years past, have been mostly confined to certain Islands in 
the West Indies. The Dutch, the Danes, and the Sweites. 
haA e had some possessions in those islands, but not much on 
tijc main land. The French possessions have been gradually 
diniifii.-hing since the year 1755. 

The European settlements in America having generally 
possessed the colonial character, there has been, hitherto, 
iut little opportunity forthe proper dcvtlopemcnt of the rc- 
' curces of tlio western continent, and but imporlect mean; 
f deciding on the ultimate character of the American peo- 
j.le. Colonics are usually governed by natives and citizen- 
..fthe parent state, who, frecpirnlly, are seeking their pri\ at- 
I molument more than the welfare of the community in which 
ilicv reside. It is also incident to the colonial state that tlic 
moit influential part of the population are natives of the pa- 
rent country, retaining tlie manner* of their early education, 
.uu (lilTerent, of course, froiuthe natural habits of the co'ony. 
\riOther cause unfavourable to the character of colonies is 
iiey are never admitted to an equal participation in the be- 
nefits of laws and public institutions with the people of the 
jvarent state. But the greatest of their mislbrtunes tiriscs 
from tTie character of their settlers. The greater part of 
rmigrants from all countries are in needy or reduced circum- 
stances, or such as arc suffering in reputation, or persons of 
aspiring ambition or gra.sj»ing avarice, not contented Mith 
their limited prospects in a regulated slate of society. — These 
causes always produce a depression in the condition of colo- 
nics, and make their moral and inlelkclual character various 
and indeterminate. There have, indeed, been colonies in 
which these causes had but little influence ; but, generally 
they are so operative as to fix the character of the peoj)le. 

'i'ho Spanish colonies in America have usually been go- 
verned in an arbitrary and injudicious manner, with a prima- 
ry design of aidin^^thc resources of the parent state. Sevc- 
) al of tiieir cities arc large and opulent, and might be the 
roats of arts and refinement. But their internal police is 
very defective, the administration ofjustice, often, venal and 
corrupt, and little or no attention is paid to the moral culture 
of the citizens. The great riches of their mines have laid 
A i^.'wrri ipudency to pro<l'ic(^ a spirit of avarice in the pco* 



JE-CT. 1. MODLRM HlSTOPvk-; 309 

pie, and to draw thilher the avaricious of all countries. TJiis^ 
vice, sufficient of itself to destroy every virtue, has kept the 
Spanish colonies in a state of extreme corruption, and Im** 
banished, ia a great measure, all public and private virtue. 
Their religion is the Roman Catholic, which has generalU 
been taught by the Jesuits, and the ambition and avarice of 
that relii;ious Order have tended to prevent the moral effica- 
cy of the gospel of God. 

The most of the Spanish provinces in South Amciica are 
now in a state of insurrection, and several liave declared 
themselves independent of Spain, and established a govern- 
ment of their own. The most respectable of these is the 
government of Buenos Ayrcs, in the province of Paraguay. 
The extent, fertility, and climate of this province, are sufri' 
cient for a great empire. The armies of Spain are endea- 
vouring to reduce the revolted provinces to submission. The 
first beginning of opposition to the Spanish authorities was 
as early as 1797 : it gradtially incrt-ascd till 180G, when it 
became formidable and extensive, and the war has raged ev- 
er since. The government of Spain has never been abl(Mo 
make any powerlul effort to reduce the revolted countries, 
yet the war has been carried on, like most civil wars, with 
implacable rage on both sides. The ])rospect is that Spain 
will never regain her lost domitiion : yet it is hardly to be 
expected that those pro\ inccs can maintain a regular and free- 
government. 

The extensive province of Bra.-il, perhaps the best in South 
..inerica, has usually been better regulated by the Portuguese 
government, than the provinces of Spain. It hns an exten- 
sive and lucrative commerce. Since it became the seat of 
the Iloyal Family of Portugal, it has been very fiourisljing, 
and may, perhaps, be denominated a kingdom. The first 
royal government on the American continent. Rio Janeiro 
the royal residence, is said to be ihe largest city in America. 
But the greater part of the extensive country olBrasil yet re- 
mains in an incultivated slate. 

The West India Isl nuls, situated on the great gulf between 
North and South America, have ev^M- been very important 
to commercial countries. Conflicting claims for these islands 
have produced sanguinary wars in Europe. Their ])ro- 
ductions if properly cultivated, are great and valuable. 
Of tliese the sugar-cane is the most important, for which ro 
part of the world is more natural. The most of the ncres- 
saries of life may be raised here in great abundance. The 
fertility of the soil, in some of the islands, is almost without 
a parallel. The most of the labour in these islaui^s is done 

3:2* 



370 MODERN HISTORY. CKAP, Vill. 

by African slaves. Indolence and vice are the predominant 
characteristics of the free inhabitants. The ishmd of Jamai- 
ca, belonging to Great Britain, is well cultivated, large, and 
valuable. Cuba, the largest in the whole cluster, and very 
fertile, belongs to Spain. The city of Havanna, the capital 
of the island, is a place of great trade. The city is defended 
by the Moro castle, the strongest fortress in America. The 
indolence of the Spaniards prevents them from deriving but 
a. small part of the benetits which this island is capable of 
affording. — St. Domingo is nearly as large as Cuba, and be- 
longed, formerly, to France and Spain. It is now indepen- 
«^ent. In consequence of some indiscreet decrees of the Na- 
tional Assembly of France, relative to universal freedom, in 
^he year 1791, their slaves in this island took advantage of 
the enthusiasm of the crisis, and, in August of that year, 
commenced a general insurrection, attended with great vio- 
lence and cruelty. All the efforts of the civil and military 
forces, seconded by the free inhabitants, were insufficient to 
suppress the insurgents. The mountains in the interior of 
the island form a variety of strong holds easily defended 
against any military force. The chief of the blacks was 
Toussaint, a native of Africa, a man of enterprise, of valour, 
and address. Great numbers of the Planters and their fami- 
lies were massacred, and many fled from the island Tous- 
saint maintained a military government, and preserved among 
the blacks some degree of order. 

After the peace of Amiens, Buonaparte sent Le Clerc, his 
brother-in-law, with a large army, to reduce the blacks of 
St. Domingo. He landed without much opposition and 
tought several severe actions with the blacks, in uhich the , 
French had the advantage. The insurgents, however, conti- f 
imed strong, and their resources, in the perfect knowledge of 
the country, and in the numerous fastnesses it contained, 
were great. Toussaint was insidiously drawn into a treaty, 
and, trusting himself in the hands of his enemies, he was 
periidiously seized ;)nd sent to France, where he expired in 
a dungeon. The diseases of the climate soon destroyed Le 
Cierc and the most of his army. The blacks continued the 
war, and soon regamed the conquered towns. Dessalines 
succeeded to the authority of Toussaint, and the recom- 
\mencement of the war in Europe prevented the government 
df France from making any further attempts to subdue them. 
The government has since been erected into a kingdom, by 
the ivime of Hayti, the original nime of the island. Henry 
Ohristcphe has succeeded Dessalines, and governs his king- 
lom likc^ wise nnd able sovoreign. His dominions inclade 



£LCT. 1^ MODERN HISTOR-Y. 371 

the greater part of the island. — Another independent govern- 
ment arose from the troubles of St. Domingo, and has been 
sustained with much ability, in the western part of the island, 
under the presidency of Petion. He has died the present 
year, (1818) and has been succeeded by one of his best offi- 
cers, Gen. Boyer. This government is no less determined 
to maintain the independence of Hayti than the other. — 
Christophe maintains a respectable royal court. He is a great 
promoter of the arts of civilized life, he encourages litera- 
ture and religion, and holds out the most liberal invitations 
to people of colour, in all countries, to settle in his domin- 
ions and enjoy all the privileges of native citizens. He has 
fortresses in the interior of the country which are impregna- 
ble. His dominions are sufficiently extensive, and the natu- 
ral advantages of the country are sufficient to form a popu- 
lous, nourishing kingdom. — This is a very interesting king- 
dom, as it is the lirst experiment made by the sons of Africa 
for the maintenance of a regular government, and the institu- 
tions of civilized societ3^ 

The British Colonies in North America, though less fa- 
voured with the gifts of nature than those in more southern 
climates, are highly useful to the nation. Some of their 
productions, particularly Furs and Lumber, are very valuable 
articles in the English commerce. And it has latterly been 
found that these provinces can furnish the West Indies with 
considerable supplies of provisions. The trade between these 
two portions of British colonies is rapidly increasing. 

These provinces, of which Canada and Nova Scotia are 
the principal, are governed according to the principles of the 
British Constitution, and enjoy a greater degree of civil liber- 
ty than any other colonics held by European powers. — Cana- 
da was settled by the French in 1608, before there were any 
European settlements within the United States. The de- 
scendants of the first inhabitants still remain, along the banks 
of the St. Lawrence River, speak the French language, and 
profess the Catholic Religion. The possession of this coun- 
try has often been a subject of severe contention between 
Great Britain and France. It has, of course, several times, 
changed masters. It was conquered by the British arms in 
1759, at the battle of Quebec, in which Wolfe the British 
commander was slain. At the peace of 17G3, it was ceded 
to Great Britain, and has been held by them from that time. 
Quebec is a regularly fortified town, and is very strong. — 
Nova Scotia is principally valuable for its fisheries and lum- 
ber. Its population increases, though not so rapidly as that 
of Canada. The harbour of Halifax is one of the best on the 



372 MODLKN iJlbiOKV. CUAT. Mil. 

North Ameiitaii coast, and has hecn strongly fortitied at a 
great expense. 

At the time of the American Revolution, some attempts; 
were made to enj^age the pooj)!** of Canada in the cause of 
the Colonics. But they were found to have no inclination 
to such a measure, though they manifested no hostile dispo- 
sition towania the colonies during; the war, not even at the 
time of the invasion ol' their country by the colonial arniy 
ill 1775 and 7(j. 

Since the peace of 1783, these provinces have been qui- 
et and prosperous, and much attaclied to the government of 
the ])arent country. At the commencement of the late war 
between the United States and Great Britain, it was believed 
bv m;my in I'lis country that those provinces were ripe for a 
revolt, and tliat lliey would eagerly seize euch an opj)ort»niity 
\o become connected witli the I'nited States. Init it was 
lound, on experiment, lli:il they were as much attached to 
their own government, a<5 the people of thf United States are 
to theirs. — Within a few years, Canada has had a nipid in- 

rease in popul.uion and we:iUh. The enib;l^ras^menls whirh 
have attended the commerce of the United States, have been 
highly beneficial to that of Canada. The British govern- 
incut alVord great encouragement to new settlers. Lands, to 

» certain amount, have l)een given to a great portion of the 

ettlers, for a number of years pas^t, and, for a term ol' years, 
no taxes are imposed upon them. In some i»istances, emi- 
grants from Europe rereive their «uppoit from the go\ern- 
ment, for some lime after their arrival. — The separation of 

he United States from Great Britain has produced in the 
ilritish nation a more liberal policy towards their remaining 
provinces in North America, which conduces to the hjuIu il 
benefit of the nation and the colonies, and will probabl}' en- 
sure an afl'ectionate and lasting union. 



SECTION II. 

IXITEI) STATES. 

TuE Youth of tlie United States ought to be acquainted 
with a more extensive history of their own country than can 
bo liiven in a Summary of General History, like this work. 
All that can now be done, consistently with the plan we hue 
hitherto pursued, is to collect a few of the more important 
fitcts in the hi.ttory of our country, and add such observations 



SFXT. )i. MODERN illSTOnV. 373 

as may assist the reflections of the reader, and tend to in- 
crease liis attacliment to the Innd of his fathers. 

The hest History of the United States, that we have, is in 
Marshall's Life of Washington Yet this has some want of 
candour, and more of information, in some parts of our his- 
tory, particularly of the. eastern states. The learned Judge 
wrote under many disadvantai^es, haAir.;; scarcely commen- 
ced his labours when the public were calling earnestly for the 
work. — The vencnible Trumbull commenced a history of the 
United Slates, some years since, and published the hrst vo- 
lume in loIO. This is executed with the scrupulous accura- 
cy and laborious research characteristic of that author, and 
brings our history from the hrst settlement oi the country to 
the year 1 7C 1 . The author then put his materials into other 
Jiands, for the sake of completing his history of Connecticut. 
The residue of the work has not yet rippeared. — In Webster's 
Elements of Useful Knowledge, 1st volume, a small school- 
book, are many very valuable historical facts respecting our 
country, hardly to be found in any other work. 

It is well known that the oldest of the American States is 
Virginia. The settlement of that colony commenced in 1 GOT. 
The tirst settlement of the city of New- York was in IGM. 
The commencement of the next colony was in 1020, at Ply- 
mouth in Mass; chusetts. These three states, while they are 
the oldest, have ever been and still are the most important 
and influential in the American confodoracy. 

The settlement of Virginia was made on mercenary views, 
the usual principle of colonial establishments, for tlie particu- 
lar benefit of the ])roprictors. The. most of these continued 
in England, and, though they made great disbursements for 
the support of the colony, so long as the actual j)lanters pos- 
sessed but a minor })art of the property, it laboured under in- 
superable embarrassments. — The settlement on the H«dsoa 
Uiver was made by the Dutch, for the purpose of commerce. 
They were, at that time, the most commercial and ciiterpris- 
mg people in Europe. — The colony of Plymouth was planted, 
principally, for the sake of the unmolested enjoyment of the 
institutions of religion. They wished also, to make an cx- 
l>eriment of a civil commonwealth, to he regulated and go- 
verned on the principles of the sacred scriptures. 

Each of these colonies, from their own weakness, the dis- 
tance of the parent country, and the hostility of the nativry 
savages, endured great privations and sufl'erings. 'J'he colony 
of Virginia, three years after the settlement^ Jamestown, 
discouraged by great and repeated losses, having been redu- 
ced in SIX months from oGO to Qo, embarked in their vessels, 



374 MODERN HISTORV. CHAP. VIII. 

resolved to return to England. Before tliey got out of the 
Chesapeake Ba}^ they were met by Lord Delaware, witii 
large supplies, and were induced to return. Two former 
colonies had been established in Virginia, about twenty year> 
before, which had been broken up. On that account, the 
continuance of this was considered highly problematical. 
The colony of New York were industrious and persevering, 
yet from their great distance from any civilized settlement, 
their prospects Avere doubtful. The Plymouth colony were 
on a tract of country not fertile, but they were compelled to 
rely on their own resources. To be left unmolested by the 
parent country was their highest hope. Their leaders were 
men of talents and property, and they had devoted their all 
to the establishment of the colony. They came to this wil- 
derness to plant a christian community and to die. From 
such decision of character, surrounding obstacles always 
retire. 

A beneficial intercourse was soon opened between these 
infant colonies, which conduced to their mutual permanence 
and security. The Virginians devoted iheir principal atten- 
tion, for many years, to the culture of tobacco. This article 
became the chief part of their property ; it was received by 
the government in the payment of taxes, and constituted a 
principal medium of trade. Their historians suppose it would 
have been much more profiiable for them to have employed 
their rich lands in the cultivation of wheat. — The colony at 
New York, though enjoying; one of the finest commercial sta- 
tions in the w^orld, turned their attention to agriculture, and, 
possessing many excellent lands, have ever been distinguish- 
ed in that pursuit. — The Plymouth people, having designed to 
engage in commerce before their removal from Europe, the 
sterility of their lands made it necessary, and their iisheries 
aftbrded the means of a speedy and profitable trade. Their 
attention v,^as, of course, soon directed to this employment. 

Ail the American colonies sufiered by wars with the na- 
tives. Those of the earliest settlement endured the most^ 
and no one more than Virginia. In its earl}^ state, this colony 
sustained three severe massacres. In 1610, a great portion 
of the inhabitants were cut off: in 1622, 347 persons were 
silain in one day ; and, in 1639, near 600 were put to death in 
a similar manner. The design of the Indians was to extir- 
pate the colon3^ The plots were providentially discovered 
a little before their execution, that the remainder of the peo- 
ple preserved their lives. 

In 1620, the first African slaves were brought to Virginia 
ar-d sold. The number increased, and they became very 



SECT. 2. MODERN his?-6ry. 375 

numerous in all the southern coionics. The slavery of the 
Africans was allowed in all the colonies till atlter our Indepen- 
dence. The sentiments which produced the Revolution, 
opened the eyes of Americans to the unlawfulness of slavery, 
and it has been declining ever since. There are now very 
few slaves north of the Potowmack and Ohio, except in Ma- 
ryland. Enlightened men in the southern stales are equally 
convinced of the unlawfulness and inutility of the practice. 
But neither the dictates of humanity, nor a regard to the com- 
mon safety, would allow a sudden and general emancipation 
of their slaves. 

The first planters of the American Colonies purchased 
their lands of the Indians ; and, notwithstanding all that has 
been said of the frauds that were practised, I am convinced 
that the purchases were made as honestly then as they are 
now, and that much more valuable considerations were usu- 
ally given. 

In the year 1643, the four New England Colonies, Massa- 
chusetts, Plymouth, Connecticut, and New Haven, united in 
a confederacy, by the name of The United Colonies of JVew 
England, Each one elected two Delegates who met annu- 
ally, and oftener if necessar}' , to devise and recommend mea- 
sures for the common welfare. This connexion continued 
for many years, and was productive of essential benefits. In 
this union we discover the germ of that grand confederacy 
which led to American independence. Of the whole history 
of colonies, ancient and modern, those of New England are 
the only ones that have sat down in a wilderness, amon^)^ 
savage tribes, and maintained the institutions of cultivated 
society, without the assistance of the parent country. This 
state of things necessarily led them to an intimnte connexion 
with each other, for their mutual securit}^ These circum- 
stances are the true cause of that peculiar cast of character 
they have always possessed, and have given to the people 
of New England a spirit of invention, of experiment, of 
activity, and perseverance, which has no parallel. 

The severest Indian war that has ever prevailed in New 
England, was in 1675 and 76, usually called Phihp's war. 
That noted chief was at the head of an extensive combina- 
tion of Indian tribes, who had resolved on the utter ruin of 
the colonies. The Indians made great efforts ; they con- 
ducted the war with skill and firmness, as well as with the 
usual ferocity of savage warfire. Many of the English towns 
were burnt and destro3''ed, and great numbers of the people 
lost their lives. The natives had acquired, in some degree, 
the use of lire arm?, and many of the English were slain in 



40 MODERN HISTOnV. CHAP. VJir 

buttle. Tho strength of the unitcil colonics ultimitelv pr^- 
vailcd, Philip wiH slain, vast numbers of the Indians pcri-^liei!, 
and several of the tribes were nearly broken up. There 
were always iVicndly and christian Indian?, who gave the 
Kn!;lis!i notirt} of most of the desi^^ns of their enemies. 

In the war between Kns^land and France, in the reii^n of 
\Villiam and Mary, the colonics of New Kn^iland and New 
Vork suHV'red severely. Can ula was posses-^ed by tin 
Trench, and, of course, at war with the English colonics. 
Their principal mcan-s of annoyance were by excitincc the 
northern Imlians to make their depredations on the defence- 
less inhabitants. In 1690, Schenectady was surprised by the 
I'rench and Indi uis, and totally de-troyed. For several stic- 
ceedinc; years, all the northern frontier of the Enojlish settle- 
ments was kept in a state of constant alarm. Many towns 
were assaulted and pillacjed, and some of the inhabitaiits car 
ried into savage captivity. — The peace of Ky<iwirk in 1607 
•j;avc the colonies a short respite ; but the renewal of the w i 
in 1702, revived their calamities. In 170."^, the town of Deci 
field was burnt, and many ofthe inhabitant's were carried cap 
live t«) Canada. This war continued till 171'), and the hostili 
lies ofthe French, and the Indians under their intbienr< 
were perpetual and violent. All the colonic^ north of Penn- 
-ylvania were involved in the contest. New Vork sufl'ered 
-r.vcrcly. The e:istern frontiers in New Hampshire aii 
Maine were i^rcatly distressed. Th<» general sentiment wa 
lliat Canada must be conquered, (^ne or two attempts woi 
in ide, which prov.?d abortive. Had the spirit ofthe colonie- 
been properly s i-lair.ed by the British rourt, that concpicsl 
mi'i;bl have bcun easily achieved. New Vork urged the mea- 
-are with great zeal, and made able effortu for its accom])li<!. 
nient. I»ut the colonies alone were insufticient for the ente: 
prise. In this war, the New I'ngland colonies, New Yor\ 
and New Jersey, acted in concert, by common consultatioi; 
which was a t'urthcr step towards the final confederation. The j 
expenses ofthe war were very he:ivy u|)on the colonies, for 
which they obtained no rcmuneralion from Great Britai:. 
Their agriculture and commerce suffered severely, and tli< 
country was much impoverished. The peril- of " Queen 
Anne's war" ^vcre long reineinbered. 

The southern colonies had a share in the ravages of this 
war. Spain being closely connerted with France, hostilitie- 
were caried on between Florida and South Carolina, then 
the most soutbern colony. In 1712, the Indians in North 
Carolina attempted a massacre of the inhabitants, while the 
colony was small, and a considerable number lost their lives. 



^ECT. 2. MODERN HISTORY. ^77 

In 1 7 1 5, an attempt waa made upon the colony of South Caro- 
lina, by the united lio.«tihty of several powerful tribes, con- 
eerted with the utmost secrecy of design. Tiie conllict was 
sanguinary, and continued several months. The English, at 
length, were victorious, and the savagea were desirous of 
peace. 

Pennsylvania was settled in 1682, by William Penn and his 
associates. That colon}^ had no contention with the Indian** 
for many years. This effect has been attributed to the reli- 
gious principles of the settlers. It depended more on other 
causes. The founder, like a wise legislator, prohibited all 
tralfic with the natives, except by public authority. The pro- 
vinces of New Jersey on the north and Maryland on the 
south, were of many years standing, were numerous and pow- 
erful ; the Indians knew the strength of the English, and the 
fatal issue of all their wars with tlic colonies. Much culo- 
gium has been bestowed upon the original institutions of 
Pennsylvania and Rhode-island, for allowing equal privileges 
to persons of every principle and practice, on the subject of 
religion. But the elfect has fully shown, that when the go- 
vernment and the laws do not patronize any system of reli- 
gion, the gre;iter part of the community will have none at all. 
It has also shown, what has always been known to wise poli- 
ticians, that, when the interests of religion are disregarded, 
those of education will be equally neglected. These effects 
would have been Ftill more visible in those two colonies, had 
they not been surrounded by others which have faithfully 
maintained the institutions of the christian religion. 

In the civil government of the American colonics, there 
was a striking resemblance to th« British Constitution. The 
principle difference was such as necessarily arose from the 
different state of society. As there were no ])rivi!ei;ed or- 
(hrs nor hereditary rights in the colonies, there could be no 
monarchial or aristocratical brajich in their government. 
And, in conse(jueiice of the great ecpiality of circumstances 
among the people, the greater part of them were admitted to 
all the privileges of citizens. It made no essential difference, 
wliethcr the governors were apjjointod by the people or by 
the crown. Such was the inlbi«nce of the representative 
part of the government, that no important measures could be 
carried and maintained, without their coney rrence. The im- 
position of taxes llowcd from the representatives, in confor- 
mity with the English Constitution. The ICniilish svstem of 
.Turisprudcnce was adopted in all the colonics. — The indepen- 
dence of these colonies, with regard to protection and de- 

33 



371; MODEUN HISTOUV. ClIAl'. ViU. 

fence, gioally tliminishotl their subserviency to the govern- 
ment of the parent country. 

Alter the conclu-ion ol' the long wars a<^.ui»-l liie asi)inii- 
supremacy of Franco, i[i 171J, the colonies had liille mole- 
tation frojn their enemies, for many years. All of them in- 
creased and prospered, though not with that rapidity wliich 
has been witue>sed in the growth of several of tlir >tates 
bince the Revohition. 

Among; tlic first planters of the colonies, parti( ularly in 
New England, were a number of men of liberal education 
antl dislingui.ihed science They, therefore, paid early at- 
tention to the establishment of literary institutions. Harvard , 
William and Mary, Vale, Triuceton, Kind's, Rhode-island, 
and Dartmouth Colleges, were all respectable seminaries of 
science, before the Ilevolution. At these colleges a sulVicient 
number of ' i:cf» received a liberal eilucation to till the 

learned pioi \m{\\ reputation, and to be the iuMtructor* 

of yotith. In the New Rngland colonies, conmion schooU 
were belter regulated aiul more universally established than 
in any other country. 

In the war of 17 14 betwj'en Cireat liriUiin nod France, au 
important enterprise was plaimed in .'^Iassachui»ctl'<, iigainst 
the strouj; fortress of Loui^burgh in the island of Cape lire- 
ton. As soon us the expedition was resolved on, the New 
Fnglaml colonies raised an army of more than 4UU0 men. 
with great spirit, which sailed early in the spring of 17 16, in 
their own transports, and, on the 30th of April, arrived at 
Louisburgh. They were aided by a coDsid<'r.ible naval force 
of English ship«, but the sicijc was carried on by the colonial 
forces. The siege was prosecuted with great vigour and the 
most daring bravery, and, on the 17th o{ June, the city sur- 
rendered. Never was a military expedition more successful 
in all it-^ operations, and seldom has one succeedetl against 
such unfavourable prospects. Nothing, in the mcan^ em 
ployed, seemed a«le(piate to the object in view, but the va- 
lour of the troops. The event was universally viewed as an 
eminent interposition of Divine Providence. The conquest 
was very important and beneficial to the northern colonies. 

The year following, France fitted out a very Jbrmidablo 
naval armament to recover Louisburgh, and ravage the North 
\mori«'an roast. The lleet arrived in the bay of Chebucto, 
near lldil'ax, in September. Never were the i>cople of New 
1 4rj;land so much alarmed. But the God in whom they trust 
ed wrotight deliverance for them. A long and disastrous 
pass;\ge had dt^stroyed many of the enemy's ships and trans- 
l)orts. The Admiral D'Anrille, an able oflicer, died, four 



-ECT. l.^ MODERN HISTORV. ^70 

days after his aiiival. The surviving officers wore disunited 
in their plans, and nothing was efl'ected of the ol)jecl of the 
expedition. — England and France learned fronilliis war the 
value of the American colonies. 

In the succeeding j)eriod of peace, the French government 
made great exertions to extend a line of military posts from 
Canada to the Mississippi. And they nearly effected their oh- 
ject. The government of V^irginin, alarmed at these mea- 
sures, sent Col. Washington, the future hero and deliverer of 
his country, in 1754, at twenty-two years of age, to repel the, 
encroachments of the French, and establish a fort at the head 
of the Ohio. He was met !)v u much superior force of French 
and Indians, before he reached bis place of destination, and, 
after a sharp conflict, was comi)elled to retreat. The French 
soon built I'ort Du Quesne, now Pittsburgh. — The year fol- 
lowing, Gen. Braddock arrived in Virginia from Fngland, 
with a considerable force of regulir troops. He immediately 
resolved on a reduction of Fort Du Quesne. At the head of 
1200 of his best troops, he was attacked by an ambuscade of 
French and Indians, a few miles it) advance of the fort, and 
received a total defeat. He and bis rerrular troops knew no- 
thing of the manner of savage warfire. The General and 
most of his ollirers were killed. Co\. \Vasbington, Aid to the 
Comrn. aider, rennined ]>!-"\ i'b-»i'i- IK in,lir'f -.xu] lr,1 olT'br 
rem linder of the troops. 

But the principal seat of ibis war, in America, w.is on tJK' 
Lakes and i!i Canada. The people of New England and 
New York, hiving anxiously desired the reduction of this 
province for more than half a century, were now disposed 
to jnake an efl'ertual effort for that purpose. The Britirsh 
miuistry concurred in the design, and took measures for its 
arrom]>lisbmcnt. All the recpiisitions made upon the colo- 
nic*, for men or provisions, wore supplied with promptiliulc 
and cheerfulness. Still, nothing deri-ive was elVt (led till 
the battle of Queber, Scjit. 13tb 17oi». This was one of 
the severest and most important battles ever fought in (bis 
country. There were seven or ri'^bt thoti"=and men on each 
side, the English commanded by Wolfe, the French by Mont- 
calm, ollirers of the first militarv talent-, both inspire<l with 
a romantic tliirst for mini il fune. It >vas well known thai 
the possession of Canada was to be decided bv the battle. 
The roullict was terrible, though not long. W(»lfe aud bis 
second ofhcer were slain, as were Montcalm and the three 
Dcxt in command. The victory was complete. (Quebec ca- 
pitulated, and all Canada wns shortly rediiced. The peace 
"f Paris in 1763 left this province in the posse«*ion of (ireaf 



M80 MODERK HISTOUV fHAF. Vlil. 

Britain, anil relifvcil the northern rolonies i\:>tn those depre- 
dations with whirl) they had been so loii*j di?jtres8cd. In this 
vTar, the c(flonies ac(jiiired j^reat ronfMlence in their own 
strength. Hilh ofrrotlit wore emitted hy several of the co- 
lonie**, in this ami the precedini; war, which much embar- 
rassed the circulating mcdiun) and the commercial Iransac- 
rroiis of the country. 

in 1765, the Siainp Act, passed hy the British parliament, 
produced a very cjreat excitement in the colonies. A Con- 
gress, composed ot' Delegates from nine states, pi ' by 
ihe House of Representatives of Vlii<sachu?etts, ii> •_ 1 at 
New York, in October of that year, and adopted prudent arxl 
f^rm mejLsures to procure a rrpeal of the otVensive act, and to 
assort the ri|;hts ol the colonies. The act was repealed, th« 
year followin;^, to their j^reat joy. Still, these events laid a 
foundation for a mutual jealousy between the colonies and 
the l»ritish ;;overiwnent, which, ultimately, ])rouKht on the 
\mi'rican Revolution. The union of public sentiment in 
these measures, throut^h all the colonies, was astonishing to 
♦ hem-^elves as well ns to the parent country. Miussachusett^ 
isn illy took th«' lead. 

The troubles of the colonies increased, and, in 1774, the 
liou^e of Bill - in Virginia reroinmonded a meetiii'; ot 

a general Coi „. , which assemlded at New York in Sep- 
tember of that year, consisting of Delegates from twelve colo- 
uies ; Georgia not repre-^ented. The w.ir of the Revobition 
began by the battle ol Lexington, April 1 0th 1775. A largr 
omission of paper money was ordered by Congress, irhirh, 
for tour or live yeirs, answered nil the purposes of the public 
lTea«ury. For two or three of the first years of the war, tho 
people of the colonies rvhibited n zeal, disinterestedness, and 
patriotism, which would have donr honour to the best period 
of Grecian or Roman virtue. In I77(j and 77, the army and 
ihe countr} sulVertMl exro«'din;:ly from di-'Pi-e", pnrtiruljirlv 
the irv'^senltiry and the small- |»ox. 

Independenro haviti^j hern declared, lin ' iMil'. Icration o! 
ihe states soon follo^Ted. The rapture of the army of Bur- 
goyne, Oct. 17th, 1777, was the turning point of the war. It 
produced a great eftect in both countries, und procured for 
America an alliance with Irance. In the latter part of the 
war, the country was ollen in a most perilous situatien ; jeal- 
ousy, seUi^hiicii'*, and avarice were succcedin;;^ to the virtues 
of j)atriotism, aud, in several instances, it was evidently in- 
debted, under God, to the astonishins: virtues and influence 
of Washington, for its preservation from ruin. Never, since 
the davs of Israel, wa* the hand of Heaven more con^pico 



Act. ii. MODERN niSTOKV, 

ousiy interposed for the benefit of any people, than in the 
events ol" the American lievolution and thr estabhshmcnt of 
our j)rcscnt government. Yet, in notliinj; was this merciful 
iitcrpo«ition more visible ihiin in raising up this man to take 
the lead in the whole work. After the peace in IToJ, lh« 
universal attachment to ^Vashin^ton, ;)nd the perfect confi- 
dence in hh talents and virtue?, was one o( ll.c stronircst 
bonds of union possessed by the country. 

ISoon after the conclusion of tlie war, the msrJnciencv vl 
iie Confidcrntion, for a permanent ^3•^lem of goveri.menl, 
•ecamc apparent to all retlecting men. A proposition waS| 
-'''"'tli' ' • . . . . of \'irg;inia. for a Con 

^t^n'i"! ' -. -■- . -cs, to revise the exi^; 

ing form of government. The ]>roposal was approved, and 
the Convenlioa a5?emblod iu .'May ITuT. There have bee; 
few assemblies of niore illustrious patriotsi, and vcrv few c r 
oned for a more im])ortant purpose. \Va>.hin«r{on j)resiv:r( 
They formed a new Constiiuliun, whicli w;:s completed ii 
ijeptembcr. This form of civil government combined tlu 
leading piin( iplcs of the free governments of the re^pecl^T( 
(ates, with such additional provijjions as were adapted to thr 
\isting and prospective circumstances of the nation, .n.J 
Mth the- exception of the want of an explicit acknowleiluf 
jnent of the Christian Religion, has been pronounceil by the 
mo*t competent judges ihc best State Taper extant. Thr 
successful experiment of thirty y«ars has( onfirmod this opin- 
n. 'i'he Constitution was ultimately adopted by nil the 
states, and th«' novel »*pe(taclo was c'xhil»ite«l to the worUl ol 
a great peojde deliberately establishing a form oi" go\ ciii- 
ment, without violence, and without blood. 'J'he first Con- 
gress met at New \ ork, and the go\ rrufuent conmiencetl its 
operations March Uh, IIV'J. (Jon. NVa^hinglon unanimous- 
ly elected, was inaijgurated President of the United Stale* 
on the 30th of April (oliowing. 

The joy of the nation at the peaceable e^taldi-hfuejit v{ 
the new government, u ith Washington at its head, was equal 
to that of any preceding event. His personal inlluence gave 
the government a character, at home and al)road, which was, 
perhaps, essential to its success. The I'resident possessed 
lie rare and inestim d)le talent of collecting the wisest coun- 
cil, and of selecting the best o|)ijnons for the direction of his 
own conduct. Possessing the stronsrest attachment ol* all 
good men, he e^isily collected about him the best talents ol 
the nation. In this manner, by the ri( h blessing of the 
<»'()|> of our father-. throtn:h t!ie righteousness of the divine 

33^ 



382 MUbtRN HISTORY. CHAP VVlt 

INTEKCESi<OR, the fuundation of our government wa? 

Tlie principal no:ent in establishing the Auurican govern 
ment, after \N iij^hini^ton, wa« Alexauder llaniihon. One ol 
the first statesnien of the age, or of any «'ige, all the powers 
of his vast and active mind were directed, with incorruptible 
integrity and indefatiirable zeal, to the welfare of hi«< co'iii- 

try.* 

Thon^h no uovcnmHTil Wa^ ever ailriniii-U'i cd a\ itii Minre 
upright integrity, and very ftw with eipial talent, a party 
giadually arose which opposed all the leading measures of 
the adiMiiii^tration. In fre<.' goverhin«'uts partie<5 always ex- 
ist, and they arc a proof of freedoui ol opinion. The high- 
est tribute that can be paid to the wisdom of Washington's 
measures, after the unexanipb-d prosperity of the country, is, 
liiat the government, after having in.ide a variety of experi- 
ments since his time, ha« adopted, essentially, liis system of 
administration. 

In 1701, the country became inv(dved m a war with the 
loUian tribes north of tJie Ohio, which brought upon the go- 
vWnment great trouble and expense, and, tipon the inhabit- 
ants of the frontiers, great distress. The government were 
at length successful in the contlict, and peace was made with 
the Indians in 1795. In 1791, n commercial treaty was ne- 
gotiated with (ireat Britain, by Mr. .lay, and ratified by the 
gtnernment, which met with the severest censtirc through the 
«:ountry. Its eflects, however, were highly auspicious, and. 
ha\ ing expired in 180*5, by its own limitation, the government 
ha\ V never been able to procure anotherecpially brm'licial. — 
A dangerous insurrection jigainst the laws of the United States 
WIS excited in Pennsylvania iu 1791, which was happily quel- 
led by the prudence and vigour of the government. 

After serving two I're sidential terms, Gen.^Vashingten de- 
rlincd a re-election, and was succeeded, in March 1707, by 
Mr. Adams. He pursued the system of administration com- 
menced by his illustrious predecessor. The rulers of revo- 
lutionary France having fuled of engaging our jiovernment 
in war against their enemies, their sul>jects commenced a se- 
ries of lawless depredations on our commerce, by which onr 
merchants wore plundered of property to the value of many 



* }Ii5 unaccountable infatuation in consenting to stand »« 
m Ducly in uhich ht last hig life^ has left a stain vpon his nic* 
tnory which the lustre of his lirtueii and services ran 7ievrr vb- 
'iterate. 



sdilr. 2. MODERX HISTORY. 3C3 

millions. After the failure oi'aTl attempts at negotiation, the 
government, in ITOo, made vigoion.s prepai'ations lor war. — • 
A Navy of small ships was soon built, which (leslroyed a host 
of their privateers, and an ?.rmy was raised of which Gen. 
Washington accepted the command. These events led to a 
negotiation and peace. — In Deceml)er 1799, Gen. Washing* 
ton died suddenly at his seat in Virginia, and filled the natioa 
with undissembled mourning. 

In -March 18U1, Mi. Jefl'erson acceded to the Presidency, 
when the country was in a state of great prosperity. In 1803^ 
the government made the purchase of Louisiana fr;»m France, 
for 15,0U0,UU0 of dollars, and annexed it to the territory of 
the United States. Mr. Jefl'erson was re-elected to the Presi- 
dency in 1805, by an almost unanimous vote. In Decem- 
ber 1807, Congress, at the recommendation of the President, 
laid an embargo, without limitation, on all the shipping of the 
United States. This became so unpopular, l)y the severe 
pressure upon commerce, an«l the £;reat reduction of the re- 
venue, that, in 1809, the act was repealed. Still, various 
restriction^^ and embarrassments were continued upon the 
commerce, till the country was involved in war, in 1812. • 

The Pre>uient, having ileclined a re-election, was succeed- 
ed by Mr. Madison, in 1809. Mr. JelTerson's system of go- 
vernment w.is continued, though with less skill than during 
his adnnnislration. — In June 1812, Congress declared war 
against Great Britain. To the greater part of the country, 
this event was wholly unexpected. Gen. Hull, and an army 
of more than 2000 men, soon entered Canada, near Detroit, 
and were all made prisoners. In this war, our armies were 
generally unsuccessful on the territories ol" the enemy ; as 
were the British forces, in most instances, when they passed 
our limits. They succeeded, however, in taking the city of 
\V'a.shington, Rnd destroying the j)ublic buildings, in August 
1814 ; though the same ex[)(Mlition failed in an attempt on 
the city of Baltimore. Several actions, towards the close of 
the war, particularly the defence of Plattshurgh and New-Or- 
leans, were honourable to the Amoiican arms. — The Ameri- 
can Navy [)erformcd many gallant actions, and, in no in- 
stance, sufl^ered their tlag to be disgraced. Our ships and 
men never appeared inferior to an crpial Britisji force. In 
. Sept. 1813, the British tleet on Lake Krie wa> t.iken by Com- 
modore Perry ; and, in Sept. 1814, a stronucr fleet on Lakp 
Champlain was taken by Commodore Mr'Dormoiigh. The 
two greatest disasters of the British, in this war, were the de- 
feat on Lake Champlain and at Plattshurgh, a joint operation, 
nd the failure of the assault on New-Orleans. In both in- 



'Ii4 MODERN HISTOLV. CHAP. Vfl) 

-lances they inatic Ihc attack, and, without any apparent m 

o--«ity, 0!i tijc sabballi. 
A treaty ofpoacc Uelwecn the two countries was sigttcd at 
^ihent, Dec. '-^5th 1814, auJ, on the 11th ol" rehruary» the 
news arrireJ at Now Vork. The joy of all parlies was sin- 
v*ere ami unchs^cmblcd. A jjriuripal ohject of the war wi»«5 
to compel Cireat iJrilain to relinquish the rij^ht of sei«fcluni? 
jiciitral nurchant \('->(l5 in time of war. ^^hen it was I'ound 
ihat the pressure ol ilie war on the country wiis ^••ry severe, 

nd that the prospect of obtaining that object was distant, the 
government t-ent orders to the coinmi-sionerg to leave that 
que-!i •!! if necessary, to future ditcussion. The ;;real «>b- 
sta( 1 , thus remo\ed. peace wae soon concluded The 

' of the w.ir were very i;reat. liank papi-r, w itiicnl 
rnpiial, was llie circul.iling medium of llie countrN 
ly dcpreciatiuir, and articteti of livinjf bore an cxtni 
vacant price. It was ctinij»uleii tiial the expen!>e6 of the ff«^ 
\rrnment, dnriiit; llie hisl year ol the war, amounted to ii 

iiillion of tloUars a wet k. — The national dtbl, at the clofe ol 

he Uevolutionary war, was about 75,CHX),UOO ; at the com- 
wicncement of the lite war, it was about ob,(XK),CKH) ; at it« 
( lo-r, it was about r.H>,(KK),t»UO of d(dlan». 

Mr. Monroe succeede<l Mr. .M nhj«on in the Presidency, in 
iMT. Ill the •.uinini'r of thai year, he visiletl the norlliorn 
-laics. lli«i ailniiiii'«trali««n has lieen, liilherto, very popular. 

nd seem^ to unite all parties^. — Since the conclu«ion of tin 
I. tie war, the roimlry ha*; returned io it?» former pro!«peiit\ . 
( )ur commerce has bee ome veryextensiv*»,our a^,^iculturea^ld 

iianufacttires are prosperous and llouriHhuii^, our settlements 
ire extendiii;; in an unpreccdofited manner, new states ur^ 

re(piently added to the lederal Lnion, and our country nevri 

njoyed a fairer prospect of beconnnt; speedily a j::re;it and 
powerful nation, than at the present time. May we nevei 
l>c left, by our ingratitude or ini(piilie<, to pro\ oke a ri;:lileou^ 
fiod touithhold hi< <ibunda:tt blefl«in^>. 



KNU or PAllT bZCOSD. 



CHRONOLOGICAI. TABLE 



EXPLANATION OF THE TABLE OF CHRONOLOGY 



THE Plan of the followinR Chro^tologtcaiTable, tliougb extreme 
\y sim|ilc, requires, as beini; a new (ine, h short Exp.anatiot. I i order 
to {{ive a distinct view of the succesBion of Piinccs in the chiKt" Empires 
or Kingdoms, without ernplnying for that piirpost- (Iifferenltoluiuns, Mhich 
distracts loo luucli the attention, anU occ«i]»ies unnecessarily a great deal 
of space, the Series <-f the Sovereigns of tiifiVrent Xalinns is disiinguieh«d 
in thib Tabic by their beiiie priiiltd in diflVrent Typogiapliical Characters. 

, Thus, the Serirs of tlic Kint;s and Eiupttors oi" Hjinc is printed in a 

' larger Roman Type llian the rest of the labU- ; — as, 

11. Tiberius, Empe4-«>r of Rome. 

The Series of the Popes ia disiinguishhblc by litis cliarActer ^ prefix'' 

(d {" i-:«idi II. line ; — .'1=!, 

ISIo. t Pope Leo X. 

I HAT of the SulUns of tlie Ottoman Empire, by a ^^' prefixed to llie 

. .line. •* 

Tbr names of the Empcvors of CJermany are printed iu Romati. 
Gapitals ; — as, 

887. Arnolp, Emperor ol Germany. 

The Kings of En(:Ian(! are marked by the hiack SaXon Type ;— itS, 
lOCG. JKHltliam (the Conqueror) King of England. 

Thk Kings of Scotland, by a larger CajHtal beginiiins the word ; — a?, 
^[1390. RoHFR'^L King of Scotland. 

An« ihe Kings of France are distinguished by the Italic 1 ype ; — as, 
1498. Levis XII. JCmar »/ France. 

\\\ this method the Sucecwion of the Sorercigns in the difTereot 
Kiii'^'iloins is immediately di.'»lingui'«hable in the eye. as wtl! as the Dura- 
tion (jf ilioir reij^iis, while the intervening space is filled by the Remark- 
al>l 'hat occurred iu that period all orer the ^^'^rid ; and ihin 

^.lUc on of (icntral History is prtseiTcd unbroken. A mavjiinal 

Cohl(n;i IS id!'*! of It.LUST ini's Pi iiso:fS, wl ch, bcinj; appropriatCil 
chiefl\ t«i i.HMi fit Learning and Genius, presents to the licadcr a \'icw 
of the Progress of Science, and aflnrds an easy means of forming an es- 
timate of the Literary Charuotcf of any particular Ago in iht; Ills' >• » 
of Mankind. 



A 



CHRONOLOGICAL TAIU.E. 






I tiittii'^iit /v «*n«. 



' TricCrculioii i»f the Wc.rl.l, HccoixJing lo llie 
Hebrew text of the Scriplures. 
\v ,■ .1 ling lo llic version of ilit- Septiiagint, 

.sr.'. 
Accunlni;: «o tlir SMrnantHn version, 470'J. 
^ji-T'Slrhc miiNLnriJ l)<.l<i-t. 
,|jilHrh«' buil-lmi; ol IJ.ibcl.— Ilic I' 
I Mii.kiml, uiul tlic o ifu»M>n . . 

i^ K US <• ^**>ria •»f:;i«h to iciKu. 

.,\. .. (ii! supprtW'l t" li«^i" '"lilt H.ibvlon, and 

j loiuMleil tbtf r. ' l>v ; mikI 

\sMjr lo bavi' » i liHimlc*! 

the .M<»ii-4rcli\ ol A»s>n«. 
2188 Mor;-* '■'■ ^•'' <•>"'* NliSiaiii)) fiHllids lliC 

M 
>i.u k t I. ~ I ii'icr C};j* pi 

, ..,,.„,,. 1 McmpLUinRgjpi 

I ' ' r .• hit Ui of Abrtitn. • 

toiacr tuUluetlCYcral of (he Kiugt in 

i() (iomorrah ilcitmycd b) fire i^p 
' n. 



% fouiuU ibc kingtiom of Argw* In 



itii 



I Kmu l»orn. 
S!if|»btM-<) King* hbatMl"!! I .};.M 
', .X \»,f.,l.a.u 

' . . \JtKa. 

of Vy^\ |»l. 

•t tli«' \run«JcliRn Murblc 



15S5 AUu», .ir/ronow. 



■,-,'M, 



u:.i 



litr \.. I ♦«•« 

; ir, two r .^ . 

tf l)rUi'4i«>n Ml rhc»«iil>. 
of ibe Kmpbxctio'ii inst«ltil£«i. 

^ I 

ItTlicbet, Mn<I iniixM)4R« Idlers 

0- 

^1 cr« of tlif Hi«torjr of Job. 
mme from Kr\ pt i >(o (Jnccr. . 

;. . » .... US or KrcclhofJiuJ iutlitutr^ ibt- Pana-| 

(ht'ikieao (fU'i.es. 
^' iv« briiips tlir Isrnclitf* •> •' 

,«. Tir-I Olvin]> c (i:i'n<«.ii I--'. 
ill*' I'o'italeuch, or r»»e U«*».r.. ... .\....w. ■ . 

written. 
The iM-aelitcf led into lUc laud of r — ti- ' 

Joshu.-). 
l*:»ntlion Ki!i2 of Atht-n*. 
1'iic U'xik of .lo^hiiii supposed to be writtenl 

ly |>hincl!:.s »he lliv^b l*mst. 1 



r -v lit 



.. - T 



OHRONOLOOIC'AL TADLIL. 



SOT 



n r , 

!l-kOt .Mii.oi rcigus in Crt:te, and gives laws tu llic 
I I CrclHUS. 

- iif>s reigns in K};ypt. 
IS rc'i^ns in Uab)lon. 
IS reigns in Assyria. 
,. I. iipus uiairies his Mother Jocastra, and 

reigns in Ihebes. 
1-263 



1257 
I '2 J 5 

12)9 



12»5 



lUuxir- lit }\ 



The \rgnna<ilic Kxpe<lilion. — (Aceonlinj; lo 

the Xewlfdiiiiu chroiiolog\ y.iT.) 
Theseus unites the Cities <it' Atlicu. 
The hraelites dehvered by Debonth aiui 

HHrak. 
Tyre, the capital of Phcenicia» built by the 

Sidonians. 
Lalinus hfgins to reign in Italy. 
Siegi- ot'Thf-bcs. — War between Ciyoclcs am 

I'olynices. « 
KurysthenesaiiVl't oclesKingsof Lac<-dacinciS. 
Second War cl 'riicbcs, ov War uiKiie Epi- 
gonoi 

l2(»7;lii<leo Judge of Israel for Ijw^^L-ars. 
l,'t/^'Jknctr built ^^xlaiiiiB. ^^^ ♦— 

irjJilSbc Trojan W ar Ijegins. 
118< Troy taken and biiritl by ihcditiks — (Ac 
eoiiliiig to the* AMMeliau .Marbks r.'O'j) 
ll8-^|.t!iK:i!i hnds in llaly'T 
1 l5j|Sains(jii born. 

" turn of the Ilcraclidz into I'cloponnesus. 
uuel d livers Israel. 

.1 1 phi hah Judge- of Israel. 

lor'.tj^aul Kuig of Israel. 

It»7()|Me-«l(jn ftr»t .Vrchon of .Vihcns. 

HJ6y.L'odru« King of Alliens <levotes himself loi 

his cooiitry. 
1'>55'I)avid King of Israel. 

ji Dt-dicutioii of Solonioii'i Temple. 
VI Uli»lK>Mni King of Israel. 
'j; ; Scsosiris Kiii'^ of Kgvpt. 

9- ■ ' "'d Jtzuhcl reign over Israel. 

'Jli,(Jiiiii King ol Israel. \ 

ss'jj AtliHlja wife of Jehnram, usurps the ihroue 
ot' Judah. 
Ilonur's I'oents brought froni Asia into 
( , 

^' reforms the Republic of Laccds- 

iiMin. 
The City of Carthage built by Dido. 
Jtroboain restores the glory of Israel in i< 

reign of f«)rly one years. 
Niiicvih ttkeii by A i baces and Delcsis, whiol 

fiiiislies that kingdom. 
Jonah preaches it peiitance lo XiiipTth. 
Til.- Fiiisr ()i \ Mil Ah bej^ins ill this year. 
I liius ol Corinth. 

, ■•■r, 'jf As.nria. 

7(k>Tlu' l-plmri, popuhu- Magistrates, instituted 

I at I.aci ihrniO'i. 
-i^j^'IIxiattes King of Lydia. 
7;^! iXceniiial Archons elected at .-Vtbens. 

7:.-2| The Fniui(lafionofKoQieb)'Komuluj! 
"^slRi.pc of the Sabincs. 



1 :84 Orpheus, \Anm,Jt. 
Jason, IIcrcuh-5, fl. 



12JJ M us ecus, Poet, f. 



I'Jl J Nebtui 



Mcnelaus, Ulysses, /?. 
Ilteioi , Acliilfes, / 
1180 I). res Fhrvijius. 

D.eiysOret.y?. 



S84 

8C9 
Stt.) 

Soi, 



laiO Sanonialhony,'. 
907 Homer, Hcsiml,/. 

896 Elijah, r.o{iUt, p. 

87.) Lycurgus, ob. v. 

Klisha, Prophet f ob. 



7(>% IsaijJ,. rrophet. 
Joel, J vophrt. 
.\nius, / ri,t)/ui. 
.Micah, ^'lofthet. 
Obadi;di, Prophc:. 



3«n 



KRdNOLOillC'Al. T-4B1.E. 



B. C I _ ______ 

747|The Era of NHbuimssar ruade use of b) 

I'flemy. 
'Vtii OlMiipiatl. 
73(j\ nudauifs King of I^ydin. 
7,4 H»-ztki»Ii limh Km^ of Jiul;ili 
7i^j IhhImaiiHtHi lakes Suniaria, and catTics ilu 

ten tribes irilo c;tplivity, vli lIi puis Mi end 

to till- Ura<;iitis!i kiiigdoin. 
7J!^lGvKei Kiii^ol" l,\d'.i. 

71 " I'uinjulr.-;, sfcond Km- of Homi*. 

7 1 hcril), Kini; of Am} Ha. invade* Jutliea. 

71 I ■ . King «4 Media. 

7j_i-, , t .Ik'.ik jii djiIh sit'd. 
70.}:tJ«'>if\r.« founded l)y llicConnlhiaits. 
70it'XXiIi Ol) rnpiad 
Ci < li MXifenih Kii)|» of Judah. 

Qij^.i. .i kills liolofcntcs llic Assyiian Cionc 

ral. 



i 



llfuitrieut Pertwnt- 



736 Kumtlus, J'oet. 
Agnllion, }*ort,f. 



I ra 
\\\ nn 



C7-i 

r-. 



C84|-^»"U"1 Artlions elected ntAtliei.s. 
fjgi KsniliHtidon unites the kingdoniit ol Babilon 
and Awyna. .^ <f 

I'tillu.-i llostiliti'*, ;rl KioR (»f Komc. * 
-;;s Kinj; of Ki;) (tl. 
.1 Iniween the Horutii and Cuflttl. 
Wilt Ul\ inpiiul ^ 

. x.inliuiu I'ouiided Lt Puuinuius King of 



\rcliiloclius, /'otr. 
iyitinit, J'oet. 



Ten»nnder,yj. 
Alcinan y?. 

SlcMchoi-tM, f. 



Arion. JMuaician^fl. 
OVl I'.ltaehu* ot M.l> 

letic. 
— Bias of Hirene. 

Ale, us, Pod, ft. 



Sparta 
Phraoites King of Mc<lin. 

«ji("] Anrus Marlins. -Ith King of Uon)c. 

6 •" ' ' • irly yems f>f Kzekiel U-^nn. 
f. Icr Tyrant (.1 Corinth. 

.Sn'> ipolais.ir, lather of Nebuchudnoczar, be- 

I ^ins t<» reign at lUhylon. 
624d)rai;f», Arch'.n and Legislator of Athens. 
6'2<''\l.tl. Olympiad. 

6tf,; r M(|tmiiu«' Pri*;«Ml«, ;'.th King of Knmc 
606 N« huihadnezzar take* Jeiuwlem. nnd en rie»,j5^,p|,, J I'^^ctettfJI. 

I the Jews into eai»(iMt). 
601 n.ittle between the Me<let aixl L^diani, who 

are v pirated bv a gre.t eclipse of the «nn, 

predicted l.v 11.. lev ^Newjo.. (Jhn.n. A«S.) 

End of the K;npire.—>Wnc»eh taken 

I by Nebuel «i 

r.iXj'.Iercmiah pt<.pnesie«l. 
5.j.iiliiith of fyrtis the iaTvi^i. 
59*4 S'.|.,n, \rchon and Legislator of Alhcni. 
ShitLth Ol} inpia«I. 

57s'^orviu* TllUiuS, Olh King of Rome. 
.^rjA'. I.ncliadne/zar »u^«lues Kg> pt. 
SriVhalar-sTvrant of AgiiKCi.luni. 
Sfj.'ICoinedieslirttexhhnedat Athcniby I hcsj 
— — !Cr 8HS reigns in Lytii.< 
S.it'ronMicms. the Cirnesr Pinlo^ophcr, bom. 



590 AUmncrraui, i^o.Jl 
Jeremiah, l*ropliet,ob 



»5' 

S4(> 



PisisiralusTvrHnl ot Athens. 

V\r ancient Tcmplc of Delphos burutby the 

Pitiatiatidx. 
LXth Olympiad. 



u'liiiusof MilelUt, 

- I'lniecydesofScyrOi. 

Pliil ft. 
• ."»S Solon, oh. 
5 50 Uhilo of Laccdx- 

rnOD. 



i HRO^dLOuU;AL TABLl. 



Jt>? 



534 



Uluxtr'tous trrs*f,t. 



529 



538 Italjyioii taken by Cyrus. — Kml of the Babj 

Ionian Empire. 
53G;Cyrus ascends the throne of Persia. — He puts 
an end to the Jewish captivity, which had 
lasted seventy years. 
Tarquiiiius Superbus, 7th King ofl — Stesichorus, J'oft^ fl: 
Rome. ■547 Anaximander, ob. " 

Daniel prophesied. — Phooylides, f*Qe(, fl. 

Death ofCyruathe Great. — Carabysses King — Susarion, Fab.f. 

ot Persia. 546 Orpheus, A 

Death of Pisistratua Tyrant of Athena. 
522!Dariu8, son of Hystaspes, King of Persia 
520|The Jews begin to build the second Temple, 
which is finished in four years. 
The Pisistratidw expelletl from Athens, and 
the DeraocracT restored 
SOOLXXth Olympiad. 

488.Statucs erecletl at Athens to Harmoilias and 
Aristogiton. 
The Tarquins expcUeil from Rome, and the 

Regal government abolished. 
The nrst alliance between the Romans and 
Carthaginians. 
SO-USardis taken and burnt by the Athenians. 
498lThe first Dictator ereated at Rome, (Lartius.) 



510 



509 
508 



407, Institution of the Satuinalia at Rome. 



554 Auticharsis of Sc}- 

thia. 
552 Ibychus, Poet, f. 
548 T'hales.y Idl ob. 
— Theognis, J^o^tyji. 



544 Bion, pQCtt fb 



Thespis, Com. fi. 
.\nacreon, I'oet^ji. 
Scylax, Qeog. 
Diogenes, Phil bo^-n. 



519 Zoronster, yf. 

— n.jg^^ai. Prophet. 
51 ft Onomacrilus,/-'o. fi. 
ficraclitus, I'hil. a. 
Ocellus Lucanus, //. 
Gcorgias, Soph.fl. 
Epicharmus, J^oet^Jl. 
Aiiaximeues, PfiiL ob. 
P) thagoras, ob. 
r'lu-ano, Phil. f{. 



Coriujia, Po^tyf.. 



49 » I'he port of Pi rsrus built by the Athenians. 
490 The Battle of Marathon, in which Miliiades 
defeats the Persians. 
The first tribunes of the people created ai.Simonides, Poet,ji 

4SG|.Vfiltiades diet in prison. \ 

^Xerxes succeeds his father Dirius in the 

I kingdom of Persia. 
is ' ( IfMJolanus banished from Rome, 
•'^iitvstori itjstitutctl at iiome. 
\risti<les banished from Athens by the Os- 
tr.-icism. 
480 The Spartans, under Leonidas, cut to pieces 
at Thcrraoi)ylac. 
Xaval victory gained by the Greeks over th 



J 



P'.-rsians at .Saiamis 

1 laid waste, and Athens burot, by Mar-IConfucius, C/uTM^'/'AiY. 
"»s. o!t. 

■ ■ 1 Victories over the Persians at Platen and 
I Mvcale. \ 

s leavrs Greece. • 

' tbii killed by ifie Veicntes. 

4rt"' I'lieniisiocles rcbuiMs .\tlKMi>«, 

Valerius iriumpFis over the Veientci and Sa- 

bincs. 
The Roman citizens numbered at 103,000 
V great eruption ol .-Kina. 
Hicrfi Kill ' <.r Syracuse. 
^~^ \ ell' 1 linn Tribune, oblains a law lor' 

th« I.- ' of .Magistrates In the con)itia| 

hold by tribes. r 

;- Cin.on, son of Vliltiiwlcs. dcfe.its the Persian! 

I army and fleet in one day, at the raoutli ofi 

the river Euryractfon. « 

34 



390 



LIIRONOLOGICAL TARLt, 



B.J..t , 

ld'.t'Cttl»Lia l(*uiide«l b) thf Tusi-anj. 

iri4 \ili«M.'r.\cs (Loiininiiituis) King of Persia. 
I^imoii baiiisheil by Uic Osii:<cism. 

4(i,^'l'l»)l»l revolfs iVoin IIk* I'eisiaus. 

40'J'1 be Tereiitmn law ;.if>i.o»ctl al Uome. 

40o LXXXili UlvnipiaiJ. 

45tji;iiiciuii.iHn l)iciator at Rome. 

„ Tlic Lutii Sicculuic!. firsl iiislilutcd at Home. 

4 i3 (Jominenciincnt of llic Scvent) I'luplit-lioii 
\N ecks of Daniel. 



lllntttiouM Frrttnt 
Zeno,ihe elder, Phtl,JL 

Esdras, PropUt. 

.flsok|}bis, Poet. ob. 
Uemocritus, Phil.j!. 



is J rbc uutuljcr of tlie Tribunes of llie people at Aristarchus, Crit.fi. 
' ■ ' ■ 'LcucippOi, PliiLjI. 



, Home increased fr;rn five to Ic 
452 The two books of Cbronicles 6up|>o»c«l to bave* 

' been wnlltu at l!iib time b) Kzra. 
451 Creutinn of the DeceRiviri nt H<»ine:u»H Co 



Crfttinus, Com.fi. 



m- 



s. Biich}1ide8, Poet^f. 



t ibc l^«ws of ibe Vv. 
449'l'( .. een tUe liie« ks hik! !'■ . "\\-\ 

I cludeU b> (Jininn, kIoiious lnr (iiecto. 

\ 'Oealh of Viii;n.ia. hikI nbolilion of the De- 

ceinvirale. 

445 Tbe Law «>f Canulcius ftir the intermarriage,444 Herodotus, Hitt.f. 
' of ibc Patriciant >«n<l I'lebian* at Uome, « 

^l■i'.;.l^ '!'i il/iji e» creaU-d i 

' fii Bt i:iKiituied al Home. j 

^, power at Atlitiii. JEmpe<l«>cles, P/u7..^. 

4.>iMeton'8 mtieteen >ear»' Cyile of tlie Nfnon. '— Parincnidc*, PhiLf 
4)1 Ibe I'. li^M^ iie»ian war begini, whicli laitc<l4.>5 l*iitdar, oA. 

twi wart. \ioi Phidias, Sc. ob. 



ihe tJld Tettamenl eodttboui EujM.lii, Cum.fi. 

|\ri»tipl>us, Pful. fi. 



at Athens eUKpiently dcscriU'd 



\ntii.ibe»ie», i-'Ai/^. 
\K«thon, Port^fi. 
VtiBxagora*. f'hi'. oL 



415 Metou. ^fath. ft. ' 



4.»ri>t 

' tbit linu*. 

_ ^ <, .-. .1 Pi 

Mainvu. .... irtbt cjf the Prophet*. 

4'iS f)i'ath of Per,cb«. 

" ;s \othu» King of Persia. 
Olyn»i»iad. 
n -. (> I jrl>aiice> at Koine on account of the Agra- 

, rian Law. 
4!4Tlie Atheiiiafi* defeated Ufore Syracuse 
413 Xlcilnades, accused al .\lbeni, flies to the La- 
ced •niouiHiis. 
41 : K c«xincil of 4'H) g»»vcrns Athen* 
405 Lysaiidei defeats liic Atlienians at A fti»9 Po- 

I tanios. 
404'iKrtaite.xes II. f Mneninn) King of Persia. 

jKiid of ihe Prl'iponiii »i:tn war. 

4())jLvtander takes \t hcns.— (.o\emment of tlie| 
I Thirtv Tyrants. | 

4«>l! The Y. linger Cyiui wm of D .riui Notlms «'.• |(":cl»es,/.— EucIkI. i'rui 
' fealed •» bis brother \rti\er\es. and killed. Kuclid, .Meg. Phil. ft. 
.. _. .1 _ 1--.. Tl .—^ ti i,5_ 



\(\7 Ruripide%'ti. 
4ofi Sophocles, ob. ^* 



• Welrrat of ibc Ten Tbonsand (Ji 
- iViticcMtinn and death <»f Socrates. 
-: Tbrasxhibis drives o it the Thirty Tyrants. 

t and d^-livers .\thcns. 



'>99i \ Lcctisternium celeM*ated at Rome for the 

first time. 
1'17 The Ijikc nt" Mba drained bv tbe Rnman'^ ^' \c%, 7'aint. jl, 
.j'J'i Syracuse UnsMcci-ssfidly besieged b} tbe ' ■ te*. o/i. 

lliajinians. » j 

.191 \L.rcns pMiiii. Cumillus Diclaloi at Rome. Tb-ejdi !et Hint. ob. 

Veil taken. 'I'hitoxcnus, Poet, /'. 



CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. 



39 i 



'h._C.] 
5S7:l)<ittoiii>ur<iblt 



I Kut 



Frritt ■ s. 



belwctii.-i'JS Ai lsUH)li;ii(' s, 

Ctcsias, I/i5t. ob. 



of 



U>. 



380 
.)'! 

364 
30 5 

.)'•): 

35 S 



.357 
35fi 



pcuce ot' Aiiialeidas 
I llie Spartans ami I'crs ans 
iSvKo'.e i.ikcn In ihc Gauls under Ijreiuius. 
3S: I'lijehidas, the diiurlaii, seizes Uie citudcl 
I'hebcs, 
rdopidMS and EpaminDndaa deliver Thebes 

froin tilt? L.acetixmoniaus. 
Cth ()lyini)ia(! , 

Hatile of I.cuetra, in which ilie Lacedscmo-.irS Lvs^.s, Or. ob. 
iiians are deU'a(ed by the 'I'hebans uiider|Ti • r»us. Phil.Jl. 
Epaininoi.das. Antiplianes, Com. ju 

Pelo|)ida8 defeats the Tyrant of Pherra, but' 
is k:ik>d n baitlc. | 

Battle III" Maolmea. in which Eiianiinondas is I'elopidas, ob. 

killed I 

Cni tins Ic-iin icfn a jju'f in theForom at Koine. Dcmocritus, *ibd. ob. 
Danuii •^chn*. (op Artaxerxes III.) King oroOl Hii»i)ocratcs, o6. 

I*ei«j». — ;Arcopl ».jr lo H!a:r 338.) )3.'">y Xenojdjoii, y//«r o6, 

\V:ir of ihe Allit-d an^iitisi Athens. Thcopoiiipus, J/ist.JI. 

Philip of Macedon takes Amphipolis, Pydna, 
an«I Potitita. | 

Dion ovefcomes the party of Dionysius at 

Syracuse. 
Alexander the Great born at Pella in Mace- 
donia, i 
The Temple of Diana at Ephesus burnt by 
Kurostiatus. i 
The Pliocian or S.icred Warbegiruin Greece. 

Philip conquers the Thracians, P.coniani, and 

I IllMianjc. 
.oii'Darins Octius BtdMlues Egjpt 
.J4S|Phd(p of Macedon takes Olynlhus. %i 

IKu'I of the Sjtcrcd War. 

3l7;l3ionysius restored at Syrjicusc, alter an exile 

I of ten years 
.H6j Philip adiuiiled a Member of th^ Ainplucty- 

I omc Couiuil. 
3-1.) SyraciMc tijjieu hy Timoleon, and Dionysius 

I the I'yrant tinally banishtd. 
The war l»etwcen the Romans and Samnitcs.; 



• 



t'lalo, ci5. 



1 which led to the coiuiucst of all Ital}'. 
34<tCXtli Olympiad. 

. The CarthaginiHus defeated near Agrigcn- 

! turn. 

P. I )ccius devotes himself to his country. 

3i8jnattlc of(heron;ea p'>'nt"*i by Philip over Isneratcs, Or. oi. 

the \ihei>ians and 'I hel>ans. 
3."7 Philip chosen Geueraliss mo of the Greeks. 
'^^'"' IMiillp nnudt'red })\ Paiisanias. 

Alexander ffie (Jreat Kinp of Mactdon. * 

Alexander the fi real d«,";tro\s 'I'ht Ins. Pan'hasius Paint fi, 

Darius III. (Co<lomanus) Kinp of Persia. ,Arisiidcs, P(>in:.f. 
Alexander chosen Generalissimo by the Sl.ite9,Tiuianlhes, Pamt.f. 



• vU 



.133 



I 



of t 
Alex I ler defeats the Persians on the banksAppclles, P^nt.f. 

of the GvMMicttS. 
Thf Persians d* ft ated by Alexander at Issus. 
Vlexinder conquers Kp^ypt nnil takes Tvre. 
Darius tlefciteil hy Alexander at Arbela. 



'J'Z 



I lir.O.NOLOOK Ai i.xBI.C*. 



«._£.| 



Hiius kille«l. Kn<l ol'ihc Fcniiiii 



3tf 



iUtittrimii fm* 



\, 1 



\- takes positcs^on of Susa, and scti 
IJrt to ihe p;«luiH.' oi lVr««'|M(li8 
AickMnder lua&cs nuo lodiu, diTcMts l*orus, 
I'oundt s<;venil ciiiea, |icuciriitci to \Lr 

I III • jicliui frofQ tlic Iiidii 

ih. 
i'apaiufii A:t:«tor al Kome, triuiui>li»( 

over \\.' ' ». 1 . '/ 

\lrxitiidrr the iirriit diet At Habvlon, at thc|i)i(ig(iit», I^hti. ob, 

■A^v ■>'.' tti.rlv-thrtji-. I 

Tlic inkkc the Uniuau army passL3i-2 IV-miMt. CMt, od. 

till-' > 'jkf »i ("ainliiini. |— Armotic, o/>. 



i'toiern) carries UX),OUU Jewg captives into 






1*. 



of Syracuur. 



1 oil 



Jill 

,1UI 



> V..V v.,Lck cities to their 
V'-' . in tibich Antigo* 



i, and Piolcm^r, coi» 

Drn 

Drti.t w i>>. ■ > 

liberty. 
Hatf- -' ! — 

ii'i 
KabniH >ii«\!iu'M :.:i>. > aiLi .US Conut Dicta« 

i<HtLSti, , '" Is Antii>cli, Edessa, an# Lao- 

I ,1. 
— fX.\u" 
*.<t Ailiiit^ I ' K n^Ari'U I'of«nrc«trv 

•11 Seir'. -la lua 

I \ 



MfUMnder, Com.Jf. 
Plidriiiuii, Com. fi 
M k Xciiot rates, Ptu\. ft. 
f»M.l..., I'hil oh 



.SOO IVphilii*, Com. J!. 
— i*osdi|i(Ki», Com. ft. 



I loi 



rnMi 



Arcetilas, ,Va/A. /. 
riielM!, Math.JL 



Slnitoiiicc to Ms s«m '.i93 Mcii«ttdcr,/*oe/,oA. 

■ f' :-. SV. e*. 



. »iUS 



of Alcx^l^Kesnlirastus,/. 



' A 

p. 



\taiu*, i'w«i, y;. 



... . . - ^ . 

I CH.S ) ^ I 

^ .,t ■ .-tti^Goratusrcij^nR in.Maccdon thirty •[ 

•rs. n ' 

.., ..w r.-.^lgl a;;air)St tIkC Cartliagi-l ^ 



i,..i 1. •>•* Homans neat 



' I nioitry is coint-d ;it Itmne lor ib< 
nmr. 
Tlic citixwis of Rnnie i>inubcre<l at 



>... i». I 



/>>■ 



-, ;;, 



■.'f»4;'rhf fint **"ii»ir wnr bcjjins.— Tbc Cu m nc a. no tbc ^ " 
ol \*.*^y>' c'»n»pn«t-i1 | Phil. ob. 

I C<*»'^l*m^inri«l QuRstors instiuiiftl at Rome. Clcnnt^ic^, St'\ • 



t 



HRONOLOGICAL TABLE. 



oJ: 



r^ 



•bTT 



.60 1 X X X ih Olympiad 
— —rust naval vlciorv obtaineil by the lltNiiansljol MancHto, Hit^.p, 

; uiulcr ihe Consul Unilnis. |i.59 Zuilus, CV/r. 

.j55'He^utus (InVHtttl aiul taken prisoner l»y iht (Jonoii, ^/«/rfr7i.7 

' Cai ■ r,5 uutlcr Xanti 

253 Man.. -jn Hi^li IVit Tews, 

'ij I fireal Mcij:A of Mclel^us over A-J^li'ih:)), 
S.^riie Komaiis besiege LtlvbcEum, — are ildcat 



•Stcvon.y.'. 
i, Jls ts S'>f>o! Sirach. 



■J5'»l I '»e Komaiis nesiege LitivucE 

ed by Ilamilcur. 
•jh'K'i'I of the first Punic War. 



'J-14 Caliimachus, /*o. ft. 



Fabius Pirtor, Mj/. ^^ 
>hi6 Kralosthenes, G>&. 

i'iSChrysippus/'/.. 



ig ol Pcig'min succee<ls Eufncne5.|Liv. Amhonicns, Po. ft. 
are fust nclcd at Honit-. Apclluiuus, .l/uz/i.^". 

•iJ5i i lie l triuplc of Janus shut for the first Ume 
I since the reign of N'uma. 
'cir killed in Spain. 
J '. cT. rv r,f" the Homaiis over the Gault. 

,1 ,iintnm. 

vilSilbe second i'tmic War begins. 

•J iT II iir.l'i (11. f, ,,ts 'III- 1! >Mians un«lor l^anunius. 

1 ' .r. -^ 

_. , . . . , ill the Uomans .ire to- 

I tally ctcteati-'l by iianoibal. 
2l'2l*liilip 11. of .Maced n defeats (Uc -ttnlians. ..^rclMraedca, J\fiitU. oU 
— iM.nrctllus takes Syraciiic, after aticgc of two 

t V. i,S. 

» si:rrcndiT8 to the|lonian8. , 
V . I.,.. .1,.. « ; .-. .f ,./,.>..ii.M» J ml I a. 

I by the Scipio^. 
la .i^ki^'Kj «..ii. lu... .:>i 1, take* New Car- 



I'Ji 



IS.i 

ir.. 

170 

ir>: 



: — p— *--- -c .» - \-i fans. 

to Africa. 

\)\ \l :l^^;Tll1^u. 

,ph in Koine by P. Scipio. 

ic Ilornins at Cvnocephalo. 

, an«l end (J^.ihe second 

ter Asia, and ilefeal Anti^onuk 

. Cenwr ut Uonie.. 



Xcvitts, Poet, f>b. 



ii 

The 

Pn 

at \' 
tjww -lie Homana and Ptrscus Kiii^ 

<»t' Mavi-.lti:i. .V^ J 

.\Mtii»t;b(!» dcleats the Gcnwis of Ptolemy n 

F.Rypt. 
Aiitiocbns Kpipl)||es takes and plunders Je 

lUnnlfiM. ^^. 

I'lrctjce's cornedicn pcrformwl at Rf^-nr. 
l*er$iMis ikfvuted by Paidiii A 

hro'iilit pHloner (o Home. 1. 

. (<l' Maced(tO i 

cabcus drivci ilie Syrians out M^^^^;^ ,. /'oe/, ob. 

e. Port^oh 
\ i-'r.pns n'inifi'"roil A .IJir.i'J \ irlini (»>. o^. 

I — H.pparclni*. /'/uA^ 
!• 37 ^1. PoUii 8 Cnio, 
X ' (ir .t Hii.l Hist 

... ... ,....,. '>■' -'jsJlSr I'bi^i nyznnt. A 

vmpiftl K'ntolum, Phil, ob. 

•^ 1 ' 



191 ^ pollor.iut iifaod. 
Po. A 

IV' "' ■ cmen, o/». 
I *> >, Poel^ 'J'. 

Uion, Pr^t.f. 
^MoscJitis, PoetfjK 



Iniilus, Poet^ 



CHKONOLOOICAI. lABLL. 



.)5 



u 
11 

1)8 
»(.. 
02 

89 

ss 
if) 

S2 



I'h 



- etianiclull; deteated by tlie Ku- 



The liisiorr oJ llie A|t<»ciypliJ» ends. 
Vtitiochus btwejjib .leinii;»lcni. 
riberiuB Graccluis put to dcatli. 
NuriiADtia inkcn. — I'ergniuus becomes a llO' 

man province. 
Cuius (iiaccliui killed. 
(jarbo Uie Consul ilrnes tltc Cimbri ond Teu- 

loiics <>gt of Italy. 
Tl»e .lugurtbiiic \\ ar begins, 
Marius deteuls Jumnlba. 
,!uj;tiilhh starved lo dculli at Uomc. 
Maiius dcfeals llie TeulonM and Ciiuuii. 
CLXNth Ol\mputd. 

I'he War ot'lbe Allies apainst the Homnni 
Sylla dcJeals the Marsi, IVIigni, SamniJeJ, Sec. 
The .Millirnliitic \N ar Ije^iiiS. 
Civil \N ar between Maiius and Sylla.*— S^lla 

take^ pf«>se»u<»ii »>| Konte. 
VLlbrulHtes Kingoi l*oi»tu» «1efeate<l bv Sylla. 
Sylla «lel«at» Norbanus. — Tlie Capild burocd 
Sylla perpetual Dictator. — Hii lion iblc pro- 
scription. 
SrtlJidinsC.iMr makes his first campaign. 

(Jieero's first oration fur Roscius 
75*1 S\ lla resigns all f>ON»er, — and dies. 
rrrriieWarut Sn if.rius 

Luculltm repe/«te*Ilj defeats Mithridatcs, and 
reduces founts to a Koiiiun i)r*»\iiice. 
rOCrasMis nii'l I'ompey chosen CoinuU at l*'>nir 
»'3 Victories ol I'ompey. — lie takes .len; 
and restore* Hyrcanus to the i^'»\et i 
of Jiidxa. 
r..>|Cataline s conspiracy quelled at Home by Ci- 

ecrti. 
Ot Pompev enter* Tl<»mc in triuflSiph. 
f.OCl.WXtli Olynipi.^d. 

59 riie first Trium\iralc : I*oroi»er, Crassus, and 
('sesar. 
Os«r piTiposo* I i»r» .\graj-ijui law- 
Cloiliin the Triliine procures the banishraotit 

of CuK ro. 
C nardefeais Alfcwiatus inCa'.l. 
(;iceio brought bttek fr»)m e\ile with high ho- 
nour. 
Carsir hnds in Britain for a short camvaign. 

invades Hritain a second time, and con- 

ijucrs :i part of the countrv. 
Crassus k llrd in M( sopotamia. 
Miln defended by Cieem for the slaughter ot 

Clodiui. 
Cocsar jiasscs thv Kubicon, anil roarclict to 

Uomc. 
Commencement of the sera of Antioeh, Oe 

lober .\. C. i9. 
Battle of I'huisalii. in which TompcT is de 

Icated. 
l*t)mpey slain in l^gypt 



\c\ r. jb. 

— C. i'lso. Hut. ti„^t 

128 Carueades, Phil. ob. 

I'-'i rol>biu», Hilt. ob. 
115 Apollodurus,G'r. o6. 



58 



5.S 
5 a 

52 

49 



4S 



Liic'lius, Pofl, (J>. 
lul Scxt. Turpilius, 
Corn. ub. 

— L. Afiicanus, Cuw.Jl. 



Alexander l'olyh.7^. 
84 Cinoa, ob. 

a. 



I^ C. Siscnna, ILit.fl, 

73 Sertoriua, o*. 

Terentins Vnrr"©, /'. 

.\smu& I'oltto,/. 



r)0 C. Dec. L^^f||ias, 

JILm.A 



l>ucrctius, y^co/, ub. 

j 1 Posbiiloniua, ob. poit. 
Trogu'i I'o'T • '^'••'< ". 



CHROKOLOuICAL lABLC. 



6*JCj 



n.c 
48 



4C 
45 



4i 



4 

43 

40 

34 

S3 



Iht A kxandrutu Library of 4ltO,Ui»0 vols. 

burnt, 
(jalo besieged in Ulica, kills liimself. 
Vim Kalemlar refom\e<l b^ Julius Cwsar, bj 

introducing the Solar \ear instead ot ihe 

Lunar. The fust Julian Year began 1st 

January, 45 A. C- 
.fulius C;e8ar killeil in tlic Senate-house. 
Oclavius, grandi»ei)heTV and heir of Julius C«c- 

sar, comes to Home, and is opposed ai hrit 

by Aulony. 
Seuon*! Triumvirate : Octavius, Mark Anto- 
ny, and Lepidus. 
ilattle o» l*hilippi, in which Brutus and Cas- 

sius are defeated. 
Hero<l marries Mariamiie, daughter of Hyr- 

canas, Ht)d obtains from the Konwtiis tke 

goverritnent of Judxa. 
.\ntony diviiles Armenia among the children 

of ( leopatra. 
Mauritatna reduced into a Roman \)rovM!ce. 
j\V ai- declared by the Senate against Antony 

and Ck-opalra. 
)l Battle of Actinm and end ol the Roman 

Commonwealth. 
Octavius Emperor of Rome. 
Ucatli of Mark Antony and Cleop.Mi-a. — 
I Alexandria taken by Octavius. 
'* ■ e$ the title of Augustus, 

illus. — Agrippa in Spain. 



Ktuttriou^ Pfrsoru. 



.^Qgustus re 



lia sends an Erobaksy to 



Igustus revive* the secular games. 
The Uhxli and Vindclici defeated by Drusut. 
The Twniple of Jaims iliut by Augustus tf)r 

a sfiort time. 
▲■gaMus corrocis an error of the Roman Ka- 
Blendar. 

Death of .Mecxnas. 

Augustus ordams a census of all the people 
in 'III.- Roman empire. 
4LrESUS CHRISr IS born four years before 
U. the commencement of the vulgar a-rii. 
9 The Roman legions, under Vanis, cut to 
pieces in Germany. 
Ovul the Poet banished to Tomos. 
1 4 rjl)erilis Emperor of Rome. 
19 (lermanicus dies at Antirx;h. 

Tibierins banialies the Jews from Roifte 
il rCth Olympiad. 
2^ <:<:i8t t)iy,npiad. 

- ilero the OLr>TriATi9 end. 

iiojjohn the Maptist preaches in Jud.i ii un c«;m- 

ii'g of the .Messiah. 
■Z7 '' Ii<M ins retires to the it'latid of Caprcse. 

- ' -'o made Governor of JudarH. 

'1 '•cjuMus disgratc<l, and put to denih by Tibe- 
rius. 



Alex. Polyhisior,/. 



Julius Ci<^sa", Qu. 
UJo«lorou3 Siculus, ^/5/.' 

M. T. Cicero, ob. i 

A. Hiriius, ffisl. f. 

Catullus, Poet, ob, | 

>l. Junius Rrutus, f!. 
.>5 ;?allnsuus, Utst. ob. I 
l*ub. Syrus, Poet.fi. 
Maniiius. Poet, ft. | 

IJioscorides, J^hija. ob. 



Corn. Gains, P>jet ft. 
.Mcssalu Curvinus, Hitt. 

.A- 

'-'6 Ter«ntius,Varro, ob. 
I'roperlins, J'oety /-. 
'25 Corn. iN epos, M«/.o6. 
19 A irgilius Maru, ob. 



M. Vitrtnius Polliu, 

Arth.JL 
\Sl .M. v. Agrippa, ob. 
CiJit. Faliscus, Poet, J.. 
iioraiiuii I'laccus, ob. 
.M. Sccevola, Ictus^ /'. 
4\'erriu8 I'lacrus, GV;/' 
N. Dantasc^nus y/. 
Labi (I, Ciipito, Jcti,ji. 
byginvis, JMalli. ft. 
Annaeus Seneca, Or.f, 

4 riiaedms, i oct^f. 

5 Dionysius Hal. lliu.f,, 
i iiusLivias, Jliat. ob. 



\7 Ovidus, J^oetf ob. 
'I'ibullus, J'oetf ob. 
17 (/eUu.s, A/n/.J!. 
'2.3 X'aleriuB .Max.,/?. 
25 Straba Geo. oO. 

Vnlleius r.nttrculus, ob. 
.^2 John ilie Haptibf, ob 
— C<iliii;icl!a. f!. 



)nG 



CHRONOLOGICAL TABLF. 



;. n. 
33 

r>7 

39 

r. 



4^ 

47 

5(1 
6-f 



I't'/tf t' lit Fe-sofu. 



' Si. I'cltr 111 SI l*(»|H-. 
JKSUb CUIUS T is crucific^l. 
riic conversion of St. Paul. 
Caliijula Knipernr of Rome. 
8t. Matlhcw wii(cs liis Gospel. 
The name ftf Clmslians fust given to the dis 

cii)le« of Ciiritt «t KntiocU. 
ClaUilius Ktjijieiur of Uonie. 
Hcr«Nl ptr»cc'itcsilic ChrisiJ«ns,and impiiions 

I'etcr. 
2>ei};iuj Psujlus, proconsul, convcrttMl l)v St 

Paul. 
Rxpeilitton of CUudius into RritAin. 
Sr. Mark writes his (Jospcl. 
N'espasian m liritiiin. 

The /.U(Ii Sectilateii pcrrormrtl at Rome. 
Metsalinu [tut to death bi CtjUkUnn, \kho mar- 
ries Vji^rippuia, the mother of Nero. 
St. Paul preaches in the Areopaj;iis at Athens, 
(/araciacus the Uritisli King is carried pnson- 

or to Uume. 
N'f»ro F'mperrir of Rome. 

' tnicus poisrmed hr Nero. • 
o put4 ifj death his mother ^"^tppinn. 
loiiius P.iulinu8 dcfeaii »lir I' 
I ' liritoiis under (^uecii lJii«il. 

ivoinuns. 
The fust Perteculion of ihc Christians raised 

hy Nero. 
Rome set on fire by Nera 
Rareas .Soranus and Thracca Pielus put I" 

de.ttli !/\ Nera 

M ' ' I -u , l,y riorus, ai Cxtaria, 

ludria. ^ 

.- 1 pill to death. 

< the JeHish hislonaii, gosrenior of 



' lerocnt. 

<(5!v « .11 (),( i'.i.ipcror of Rcmie. 
^'-^ Olho Kinperor of Rotue. 

V'itellin"' Enn*ror of Rome. 

'" \ '" (»f |{oiuC. 

.Mio\«d by Tilus. 

7M. I' 

\ J (• fll Rome, lo.nrw) dying in 

one J.iy. 

^^itiis Km)icror of Rome. 

ileiculancuni 4in»l T*oiiipeii dcstn)yed by .in 

.'■ ■ ••, ., (,f VcRiiviti^. 
8'' ^ of \!»rico!a in Rritaiu. 

6. til 1 'H Ktiiperrtr of Rome. 



>n 



66 



.30 IVncstclla, lhat.fi. 
I*io«loru8, GfO.fi. 
I'hdo Judacus, fi. 



Asiniui Pollio,^. 



Pomp. Mela, Ge9.fi. 



.Vretius Capp. ob. 



"fi rortiutus, t*/m7.^/?. 
sTyanensis^ 
irtn.s, Jttst. /L 
1 .alio,//. 
. . . ;s Sal. ob. 

\c.. I'. .1 ..„,,,: -7 



IK, Po. olh 



8.J 
89 

'J.. 



1[ Poiie .ViK-nl. t<ia. 84 Vale 

\i>«i!l'ini'n cl r%anea ■ Port, 

D-iTiiiiau a^.r^'Si an 

l)iea«'lul persc'UUfPS i»i lite CliiibUiHiS i.vk'O Mai' 

Ko:ue, aud m the pro>i«ice9. I — Do ' 



4 Silii^ halicus, Poeit 
oh. 
Clemens Ronianud||f. • 



C Pliuiut Scetmdus, 
Ffbrus, / 



.3. 



CilRONOLOGlCAI. TABLE. 



3^*: 



A.n.. 



y^jSt. John writes his Apr>calypse. 
writes his Gospel. 

96 



98 



I Of) 

103 

lu; 

108 



Nerva Emperor ot" Konie. 

tf Pope Evansius. 

IVajan Empeior of Rome. 

IVajan forbids the Christian AascmbBes. 



lllu (trioiis Prrsons. 



The Oacians suMued by Trajan. 

Trajan's uctories in Asia. 

St. Ignatiua dcvoure*! by wild beasts at Kome. 

^ P()pe Mtxander 1. 

I'ne Jews in Cyrene murder 200,000 Greeks 
and Kunians. 

^ I'ope Sixius I. 

.^iriiin Eiupcror of Rdhic. 

f^i;..., ,.i;..r, of the Christians renewed by 
' lit aftei-wards suspended. 

lJu|Ai.. ..,, , „.ii| built across the isluntl uf Britain. 
1J7|^I l*(jpe Tciesphoi us.. 
lol| \ilrian visits E^) pi and Syria. 
iJ- — publi-lu'S his perpetual edict ur oo<U- 



Hi 

li7 
US 



l.>5 



of the laws, 
riie Jtoiiiaus de«iroyu4 580,000 Jems in Ju- 

<l;»-a. ^ 

All nan rehiiikji Jerusalem, by the name ol 

^"EiiH Cap'tol nu. 
1i I'ope Hygiiius. 

VfttoniiiMS i'iuii,Eokpcrur of Komr. 
l/iHin; I'rfiicn-. Romriii i:<i^ tiuorof iirituin. 

Nlnnay I'nih. 



171 



177 

IS" 

is:. 

IS'i 



AriiCCtUS. 

lariyr publishes his Apolopy f«>r tli«' 
•ans. y^ 

s Aurelius Antoniims, and Lu 

- V t^riis, Emperors of Roine. 

Sot IT. 

. l» and Tionices suflired marly rdom 
III Ahih. 

War With the Maiooioiuuii. 

Uiathotf Verus. , Mlrcus Aurcliug tole Em- 

ptTor. 
^ I'npc KIcotherius. 
F«rsc<Mui()n of the Christians at Lyons. 
f'«)inilli)«lll.«* Emperor of Rome. 
• PrijK" ^'lClo^• I. 
I'liaJiMrHi 



9.> Jifctpiius, Hist. ob. 
9.i Quinctilian, Gr. ob. 
96 Siatius, i'octy o6. 
Snlpiiia, Poet,/'. 
'J9 Corn. Tacitus, Hist 

ob. 
— Julius FroDtinus, ob. 

103 Pliny Junior, f. 



1 14 Apicus C(eIus, J?. 
L. An. Florus. Hist.Ji, 



119 Plutarc, ob. 

C. Suetonius, Jfitt.f. 
12S Ju\eiial, J'oet, ob. 
130 AnI (.ellius, ob. 
.t)l. Adriaiius, ''. 
An iaii, hist. U Phikf. 
rerenfaiius .MwurUiJy , 
Justin Aiartyr,j'. 



I 40 i?:i;an, ITiU. ob. 
C A puU-iut, //. 
l*loUiii>, (Jeo/^.f. 
ItS \p)i.!u., /A.V/. ob. 
•M Aim. II iiur, t'kiL ,'.( 

11. 



1 63 PaHianu.^, ^<,o.. ob. 
I'"i5 Pfil^carm /j/.»A. ob. 
167 Justin, Jlnt. , . 



I70 Demetrius PlialLr, 
o!>. 

— l)iophanfcB,.Wa//i./'. 

— 1 ■ -i , ',.';. 

1^ «.idc», 7-Ai7. 



IHO Julius Pollux, oh. 

. f. . 



•Miins ilofeal the Roman8.«^Thi8 pco- '**' 
■ " I liiuf uioiilioiie«l ill hhtoiv. '''' 
1- " '™'>f Rome.-^Di,!!,,^ i;,.'-' ' 
I liani- purchases the Empire. 
|I'«',-^renriliH Niger <leclared Eii.peroi n. .viuxin.usl ynus,/'/;:*.//. 

I In r.Mst. W 

S«|»lirijiiis SeVPrus Emp' i-or of Romp. P'olinu?, Pldl.f. 

194 \i-'c-r d, ''r'licd li\ S<'^ Pfiis, Hfiil r m fi, i'/.;)! I, 



398 



GIIRONOLOGICAL TABLE. 



Iil6 
i '97 



2f»0 
202 

208 
209 

211 
212 
217 



-Jvzantiuiu besieged, surrenders to Scterus, 
il Mintjis proclai.ued Emperor in IJritain. 

defeated by Severus, he kills 

himself 

Pope Zephyrinus. 



lllu itrjo tji Persons. 
Julius t3olinus,J^. 
19G \then us, ob. 
FertuHian, ob. 



218 

222 



226 



i 2.3t) 



238 

242 
24 't 
24S 



The fiJth Persccntion against the Christians, 

principally in Kyyjit. 
T'le Scots converted to Christianity by the 

preachi'ig of Marcus and Dionysius. 
Seve?(i8, with his sons Caracidla and Geta, in 

Britain. 
The Caledonians repulsed, and a wall built 

between the rivers Forth a'<| Clyde. 
Caracalla and Geta Emperors of Rome. 
Caracalla murders C&*a. 
Garacalla |)ut to death. 
Micriniis Emperor of Rome. 
^ Pope Talixtus I. 
Ueliog ibalijs Emperoi of Rome. 
Alexander Severus Emperor of Rome. 
A tribute paid by the Uomaiis to the Goths. 
^f Pope Urban I. 
The Persians totally defeated by Alexandei 

Severus. 
^ Pope Pontianus. 
il Pope V uterus. 
iMaximinus assassinates Alexander Severus, 

and is proclaimed Emperor of Rome. 
The sixth Persecution of the Christians. 
1[ Pope Fabianus. 
Maximinus defeats the Dacians and Sarma- 

tiaiis. 

Maximus and EalbinusEmperorsof Rome 
Gordian Emperor of Rome. 
Gordian defeats tlie Persians under Sapor. 
Philip the Arabian Emperor of Rome 
The Sec'ili.r Games c»-leljrated at Rome. — 

Pomjx y's Theatre burned. 
S'. Cyprian elected IJislinp of Carthage. 

249 Deci'is Emperor of Rome. 

250 Tho seventh Persecution oC the Christians un- 
der Decius. 

% Pope St. Cornelius. 

251 Vihi'is Voltisianus Emperor of Rome. 
Gall us Emperor of Rome. 

252 1[ Pope T>ucius I. 
15.1 The Goths, n»ira:undians, &cc. make an ii 

ruption into Vliesia and Pannonia. 
25+ V^>derianus Emperor of Rome. 
^ Pope Stephen 1. 

The eighth Persecution of the Christians. 
^ Pope Sixtus II. 

259 The Persians ravage Syria. 
M Poi»e Dionysius. 

260 Gallicnus Emperor of Rome; 



Irenseus, ob. 
Jlcgesippus, Hist.. ft. 

Dionysius Cato, Po.fi. 
Phiiostratus, fl. 

206 Clemens Alex. p. 

207 Mii.ncius Felix,^. 
Papinianus, ob. 

213 Oppiau, P««, ob. 



220 Julius Africanus, 

llht. Ji. 
I )io^ene3 Laertius, oh. 
.^ha:.us, Hifit. '\ 
i29 Dion Cassius,./?. 
IJipianus, //. 
•Iil'us Paulus, ft. 
L. Pomponiqs,^. 



Censorious,/?. 
VIodestinus, Ictlis^ ft. 
243 Ammonia*, Phil. ft. 
1-47 Herodian, Hiat.fi. 



Origen, ob. 



258 Cyprian, ob. 



fe'HRONOLOGrCAL TABLE. 






39t) 



' 267 
268 
s26y 



27(1 
271 

27-2 

27; 

274 
275 
276 
277 
282 



285 

284 
286 



290 

292 

295 

.100 
302 
304 



i hV ■ ^'"^"- ^^•'^^ Autioch, Tarsus, 
and Csesarea. . ^ 

The Heruli invade and ravage Greece. 

olaudius II. Emperor of Rome 

diO.OUO defeated hy Claudius. 
II rope telix I. 

Aurelian Emperor of Rome. 

The Alemanni and iMarcomanni ravage the 

tiitjpire, " 

The ninth Persecution of the Christians. 
Zenobia Queen of Palmyra, defeated by Au- 
relian at Kdessa. 
JI I ope Eutjchianus. 
Tacitus Emperor of Rome. 
Florianus Emperor of Rome, 
^''robiis Emperor of Rome. 

Carus Emperor of Rome defeats the Qiiadi 
and Sarmatians. 

Carinus-NumerianusEraperorsofRome 

If Pope Caios. 

Fingal King of Morven died. 
Diocletian Emperor of Rome. 
The Empire attacked by the northern nations. 
Carausius usurps the governraent of Britain 
and retgns seven years. ' 

^lish^r^''''^" andHermogenian Codes pub- 
Partition of the empire by Diocletian between 

two Emperors and two Ciesars. 
If Pope Alarcellinus. 
Alexandria in Egypt taken by Diocletian. 



Novatianus,^. 
Anatolius, ./Wu7A.y?. 

Plotinus, P/tJl. ob. 



Longinils, ob. 

AchiiIesTaiius,»/?s^^, 

I aulus ^iaraosatenug./?. 

Modestus, //. 

280 Manes, Phil. ob. 



305 
306 

.310 



313 

314 
325 



326 
329 



J'pnn^^u P^'T"^'°" of the Christians. 
11 rope Mareelkis. 

Resignation of Diocletian and Maxiraian 
Galen US and Constantius Emperors of 
Rome. 

Maximinus Emperor of Rome, 
Constantine the Great Emperor ofRome 

^ Fon^ P.I '1 '"*'''"^'°" °f ^^e Chnstians. 
il I ope Jbusebius. 

If Pope -Vlelcbiades. 

ift>:%ivis;:i!"^^^ 

CWantine abolishes the combats of Gladia- 

Const antine assembles the first General Pnnn 
c.lat Nu-e M-bere the doctrines of A "s' 
are condemne'l. -finus 

St Athanasins, Hislion of Ai.wn«i • 

duces M„„»',.i.„.„?„r/R'^rrr;irr^'^ 



Xcmesianus, Poet,fl. 

285 Arnobius,j7. 

289 Giejjory, Hermo- 

genes, y?. 
291 jElius Spartianus. 

Julius Capitolinus, ^5/. 

Vul. Gallicanus, Biat.fl 
IrebelliMsPol|;o.^;47y^. 
Alms Larapridus, IJist. 

fl. 
Hierocles, Poet,i\, 
^03 F\.\opidcus,'//ist.Ji 
oteph.ByzantinusjMiY 

Alciphron, met. J\. 

311 Lattantius, ". 
31 a Ossjan, Poet,Jl. 



iOO 



CIIROXOLOGirAL TABI.t, 



A.D. \ 

33o If Pope Marcus. 
337 i[ l*ope .Itilius I. 

L)eath of Conslantinc. — Tlie emjiire divided 

amoiij; his three sons. 
Constantine II. Constaii-', a»id Coa- 

StantlUS EinpeKors of Kotne. 
Constiuis murdered, — Maj^iieiilius aasames 

the |Mir|)le. 
If Pope l^iherins. 



550 



3.V 

35f.i1I Pope Fehx I, 

357 I'hc (ierinaus defeated b) Julian at Stints- 
hurgh. 

358 H Po|ie Fehx II. 

359 Council of liiuiini held. 

30 1 Julian Emperor of Rome, — abjures Chris- 
tianity, and is elected Pontifex Maxiinus. 

attempts fruitlessly to rebuild the 



'I'empic of Jerusalem. 
SG.' Jovian Emperor of Home. 
36i \'alontinian Emperor of tlic West — Va- 
le ns Emperor of the East- 

366 ^ Pope DaniasuB. 

367 Ciratiau EmiR-mr of the West. 

375 Valeriliniaii II. Emperor of the West 

376 V'alens allows the (ioths to settle in Thmce 

378 The Goths advance to the gates of Constan- 

tinople. — Deall) of Valens. 

379 TheodositlS the Great Emperor of the 

East. 
381 Second General Council held at Constantino- 
ple. 
383 The Muns over-run MetoiKjtaraiu, — are de- 

foaled by the GfAlis. 
38-i Symnia«hu8 pleads the cause of Paganism 

ai;aiiist St. Ambrose in the Senate. 
385 U PopeSyricMs. 
392 'I'l>eo«lo*iur^ i-'miKrnr of the West an«l 

East. 
395 Arcadius Emperor of East, and HoJiO- 
VWK Emperor of the West. 

The Miins invaile the Eaileni provinces. 

597 St. C'hrysostom chosen I'alriarch of CoD- 

strintino[tlc'. 
399,11 Pope Anast.nsius. 

Gain as U»e Goth obtains honours from Area- 

dius. 



Jllut*ri 



400 

403 
404 

4or. 

I 



Alaric the Goth ravages Italy. 
If Pope Innocent I. 

Slilicho, Gtneral of Ilonorius, defeats Alaric 
near Polientia. 

FKUcrs 1. King of Scotland supposed to have 

bepun his reij»n. 
The N'andals, Alans, he. invade France and 

Spain. 



330 Arius, ^ , _. ^!j. 
Stobaeus, J'httol.Jl, 
Eubebius, Uiit.Jl. 
Donaius, /f. 



Eutropins, Hist.fl. 
Libunius, Soph.jh 

Hilary Bp. of Poictiers, 



Jamblichus, /*hiL ob. 
Aurel. Victor,_//. 
Vegetius, liiat.jl. 

371 St. Athanasiua, %b. 

372 Eunapius. /?. 

!l. I'estui .\\ienu5,yf. 
Pappus, JMtifh fJ 



St. I^azil, oO. 
JSOAramian. Marcel. 06. 



Prudentius, Poetjji. 

389 Gtegnry Naz. ob. 
.\us()nius. Pott, ob% 



Sl AmbiMe, ob. 

Kesvchius, /7. 
Claiiilian, J'oet^fl. 



Helio<!oru5, Uiit. ^'EtJi. 

//. 
Longn8,y7. 



407 St. Chn'sostom, ob.' 
fecrvius, Com. fl 



ciiRoxotOGirAr. tablk. 



^01 



lliUiCriaiLt Fcnonf, 



Orosius, Jlist. fi. 



Macrobius, riiilol. oh. 



Servius Honoralus, G'r. 

St. Jerome, oh. 
Sulpicius Sevcru-?, oh. 



Zozimus, Hist, f}, 
■i'30 St. Aiigusliiie, oh. 
Olynjpiodorus, Hist. f. 
Pelagins, Jler. oh. 

Coelius Scdulius Scotus. 
fi- 



'LB. 

-i'-^"* rheodosius 11. Emperor of llie East. , „„„ ,.. 

•ilUiiome sacked and burned by Alaric. — Death CI. Um.Xunaaniiaiics,/; 
I of Al.jric. 

illlThe Vandals setilcd in Spain. 

'ilOjThe Secular Gamts celelirated at Rome. 
i I'he rtl'.;^ian Heresy condemned hy ilic Bi- 
shops of AfricD. 

*!' '•[ Pope ZozimuB. 

fiSjIF Pope Boniface I. 

^"^iFliaramoiul first Kii^^ of the Franks sup- 
I po^cd to have bej^uu his reign. 

4-'-2|5[ Pope Cakstinus. 

424|V'alentiniarj III. Emi)cror of the West. 
•i-GjTIie Romans withdraw finally from Britain. 
•i'-iSLttius, the It-oraan general, defeats the Franks 

I and Gollis. 
43l|The third CJeneral Council held at Epliesus. 
•iJi'lf Pope Sixtns III. 
•iJij'l'he Theodosian Co(]e published. 
4.jy Generic the N'andal invades and plunders 

Eudosia the Empress, wife of ThcwJosius, re- 
tires to Jenisalem. 

.Carthage taken l>y the \'andals. — lviiig<lom 

I of the \ andals in Afiica. 
4iO|[ I'ope Leo the Great. 

•U^ I'heodosius foixcd to make a disgraceful 
peace with Atiila tlie Ilun. 
Attih causes his brother Uleda to be mur- 
dered. 
The Britons in vain solicit the Romans to as- 
sist them against the Picts and Scots. 
Attila the Ilnn over-runs Illyrium, Thrace, 
I Dacia, Mcesia, and Scylhia. 
;The Romans engage to pay a heav)- tributcj 
I of go!.l to Vttila. 
\\'S.M<;rov£ns k'm^ of the Fvankt. 
45oMarcian Emperor of the East 
.\ttila ravages Germany and Franec. 
rheodoric King of the Visigoths killed in 

battle.— The Huns defeated by /Etius. 
The Saxons arrive in Britain under Hengist 
and Horsa. 

The fourth General Council held at Ciialce- 

<ion. 
Foundation of the city of Venice. 
Petroniu.s Maximus Emperor of the 

West. 
Avitus Emperor of the West. 



4 is 



•US, 



451 



45.' 
455 



Taliranns Epis. Mas./? 
+44 Sl Cyril, ob. 



Eutyches,/?. 

4.iO Sozomen, Hiat. ob. 

Agathias, Hist. ft. 



4JG 
457 



461 



467 



Kome taUn and plundered by Genseric the 

V andal. 
Cfdlderick Kin^ of the PraJiks. 
^eo the Great Emperor of the East. 
VlajoriaQUS Emperor of the West 

Severus Emperor of the West, raised Ir, 

Ricimer. 
^ Pope Hilarius. 

-Anathemius Emperor of the West. 

35 



fi. 



A quit 



402 



CIIROXOLOGKAt TABLf . 



•'• '^-1. 



' 470 

47) 
ir2 



473 



474 



475 



47r. 



481 



r.unc K.iitj ot ilie > isj^oihs drives i!ic Uo- 

maos GUI of Spam. 
f' l*Oi)e 8iiiH)licius. 
J:^ila the SiiXfin tj»kes possession of the kiug 

dotu ot Sussex. 
Ella defeats all tlie Hritisli Princes. 
(ireat eiu[)tion of .Mount Vesuvius, seen from 

Constaiitiiiopic. 
01)'bius Emjieror of tlie West, 
(jrl^'cerius Emperor of the West, degraded 

and stripped by 
Julius Is epos Enipcrorof the West. 
Zeno Emperor of the East. 
AugUstulus Romulus Empei-or of the 
West, raised by his fuiher Oresles, General 
to NeiH>3 
Orestes put to deatli hj Odoacer King of the 

Heruli. 
Kome taken by Odoacer, now Kin^ of Italy. 
Exri:seTio?f of tiik Wk^tkiix EMriRF. of 
the Komans, 507 years tVom the battle of 
Actium, and l'2i4 from the building of 
Rome. 
Clotis King of t/ie Franfcs. 

'Zeno makes Theodoric, the f Ostrogoth, his 

j lieneral, and creates hiiu Consul. 
48,^,1f Pope Fcli.v 111. 
4g.-,JHaltIc of Soissons Rainc<l hy Cinvis. 
4SS, I'heodoric, the Ostrogolii, entirely defeuth 
Odoacer, and is r«.cknowlec|gcd King oi Itah 
hy the Vlmperor /ei»o. 
490 The nurgundians, under Goudcbahl, ravage 
I Italy. 

. 'Ireland, called the Isle of Saints, famous foi 

its sciiools. 
4^lAnastasiu.s Empc-ror o.*" the GifiBt 
iO.lOdoiccr put to death by Theoiloiic. 
49P'1[ Pope Anastasiiis 11. 

4D7JlJ'ovis a!ul the Pranks converted to Chris- 
I lianity. 

49*5^ Pope Symmnclius. 
49y Alliaiice hi-lween Clovi3 and Thcodoric the 

Great. 
500 

oondcbald the Burgundian, becomes tribu. 

t-iiy to Cloris 
The linrg'indian laws publislied by Gonde 

bald 
'.^abades Kin^ of Persia ravages part of tlu 

Eastern Empire. 
The Eastern Empire makes peace with Ca- 

badcs 
Clovis tlefeats Alaric the Visigoth, anil re- 
ceives a concratnlfltory enibissy, with al 
diadem, from Anastasir.s. I 

fhefKloric the (ireat defeats Clovis in the| 
battle of Ar!i-'8j nnd tlien makes peace wilhl 
him. I 



4o'j Prosper, oft. 






Ilierocles, jt. 



501 
502 
504 
507 

508 



48'2SidoniusApoliuuri 
Simpliciu3, Phil. f. 



St. Patrick, oA. 1 
\'J2 Genn;<diu5, ofi. 
Malchns, Sop/i, fl. 



ZozimtJS, //;«'. of>. 



Strjih. Byzantinus,y?. 



nRONOLOCrlCAL TABLE. 



405 



1T17 



514 
51;-. 

51G 

517 



519 



52: 
52- 



52G 



Piiscian, /^, 
ilesyihius, Jflst. f. 
Fest usPotDpeius' Oram 

Nonius Marcellus, G)\ 



40S •'^'•I'iur cliobcn Pendra^^on, or sovcrei'^n of 

theCumbiian Briiisli kiiiijdoiu. " 

5IoClovis ir.!.kes Pans the capital of the kine 

Worn of the Franks. 

'^T amon^f V^''~^^'''''^" °^ ^"' kingdom|ProeIus,/^'»7.;? 
among Itis tour sons. * '•«'./: 

\CluUIebert, Thierry^ Clatair,, and Clodomir, 

\ J^inps of the Frnuks. * 

Jl'j I he Iforuii allowed by Anastasius to settle in 
1 /I race. 
^ Pope Hormisdas. 
Vrlhur King of the Critons supposed to hav4 

L»egun his reign, 
The com|.utati(Mi of Time Lv the Chnstian 

.l.ra iniroiliiced bv Diouvsins the Monk 
I l»e (..eta? rav{,ge lllyriiun, Macedonia, and 

5IJ<| Austin 1. Emperor of tlic East raised froui 

ohstiirily. 
Justin restores the Orlhod.)x Uibhops, and 
^ condemns the Kutychiang. 
Cabades King of Persia, i>roposes tiiat Justin 

should adojit his son (Josrocs, and makes 

war on a refusal. 
11^ P«)pe John I. 
I'he Arian Uisiiops deposed by Justin,— high. 

ly resented b) 'I'heoiioric. 
Vniiocli aud many otlier cities almost destrnv- 

ed by an eartlujuake, but rebuilt by Jusiiii. 

— "c adopts his nei»hcw Jujiinian. 
1 heodoric puis lo death Uoelhius and Svm- 

niachus. ^ 

IT Poi>e Feli.x IV. 

Justinidn 1. Hmpei-or of the East. 
Belisarius, General of Justinian, defeats the 
Persians. 

^Justinian.' °^ '^^ ^'''^ ^^"^ I'ubli.hed byJTnbonianus.y? 
530,1[ Pope Bf.niface IT. 
63'J Justinian congratulates Cosroes on succecd-t 

Hig to the throne of Persia, and concludes 

a perpetual peace \v\\]\ him. 

.Great insurrection at Constaniiiioplc quelled 

i:-'U»T". P"^!'.S'""^ slaughter l.y Belittruis. 
5oo Atlialanc King of the Ostrogoths d^ing, is 
I succeeded l.y his mother Amalasonfa. 

1f^ Pope John (I. 

53^77ieoUobe>{ King of Meiz. 

Belisarius <lcfeHt8 Gclimcr and the Vandals in 

Atrica. 
535|^ Pope Agapcfus. 
5J6^f Pope Sylvester 



527 
529 



Belisarius subdues the Oslrogolbs in Ilalv 
and lakes Rome. ^' 



537 



5.38,11 Pope Vigilius. , 

540 Belisarius refuses to accept the crown of Ifalv ! 
54- Arthur Kmg of the Cumbrian Briu.ns. kille.) 

m the battle of Camlan, ' 

54oTotila, the Goth, recovers halv from the 

Ivomans. 



521 AJcImus Aviius, 
Poet.f. 

^f«nl.SeverasBoclh^u6, 
I'hiL oh. 



Fulgenlius. ob. 



Acliiles Tatius, hiat.JI. 



Procopius, Hist.f, 
Maictllinus, Ilist.f. 
Jo. Philojiouus, //. 



•](Jl 



( JIROXOJ.OUICAL 



.1. IJ. 



"JTr.'l'otila, t.'ikcs and pluntltrf Home.) 
Kla the Saxon, lahds al Flat!«ir.rouj;li, sub- 
dues llie coiinlJV from the IJufiibcr in the 
Forth, and lounds the Xorlhumbiiau king- 
dora. 

54S Thenu'cbahl King^ of Jlctz. 
.54«) KoriiC rclakin by Ilelisarius. 
550 CoritTieiictiriciU of the Kingdom of I'oland 
under l.echiis. 

Konic ici-ovtred by Toiil.i. 

55l''lhc tnarmfacturt: of siik introduced into 

j Kurojie. 
553:Totila dtlcattd by Narsus the EuBUch, and 

I put to death. 
555^1 Pope PelajiiusT. 

558j'l he Hung breaking into Thrace, are defeat- 
ed by IJflisariiis. 
55i> Behsarius degraded, and ungratefully usod by 
I Juslii^ian. 

'.C'oiuire rolv Kiii^ of Fri.uce. 
SOOiH Pojie John III. 
— ' — .Bdisraius restored to his honours and com- 
1 Mkand. 
5()'2 Ca'tf)er/^ Goiitrnriy S.gebert, and ChJlperiCt 

Allies of Ft nine. 
5G5 Justin II. Kniperor of the KasL 

rhe ricls converted to Chrislianily by i:l. 
ColiiMiba. 
566 Narsis recalled from Italy, invites (he Lom- 

l»ards to take |M;ssessinn of the country. 
^r.Xiltaly comniered hj the L«iniliard9. 
571 nil ih of .Mahmncl the f:dse proidiet. 
r.74i; Tojie Kcnulict I. 
578 I'ibt ritis II. Knijuror of the East. 

Hi r..pePela'JusII. 

DSOl'l'he L;itiii Tongue ceases to be 5[-cjkcn in 

Italy about tins time. 
5SJ Maurice Kmi»eior of the Ktst. # 

S%\Clotaite II. KiK^ of SoittofUf. 
50() Antioth again ilestroytd, with 50,000 inhabit- 
ants, b\ an eartln|uaKr. 
51 Pope C»regory ll»e Cuaf. 
yj(t Thierry 11. ami 'J'/teodouei-: II- Kingt oj Pu- 
ns and .'Juilriiflii. 
Augustine the Monk converts the .Saxons U 
Christianity. 



I'.lnslrtiUM Fertont. 
bimiiUciuSj PhiLf. 



Stobjrus,A 

552 .Tornandcs, Hist, ub 



Casslodorus, Hist. ob. 

Ilelisarius, ob. 
Agalhias, Iliat. f. 



570 C;ildas,//i«/. oh. 
Jo. .Malala, Hut. f- 



600 

tio: 



F.vagiias, Hist.f.. 

595 riregtiry of Tours, 

J/ist.oO. 
Ven.Mnt.FortunatU"^,/'©. 

trf //itt. //. 



Phocas, Emperor of the East, acknowledge* 

the supremrcy of the Popes. 
C04|1I Pope Sat/n.ianus. 
Co" If P*'P^' lionilaee III. 
1 The Pantheon at I{ome deilicated to (»od,lht 

Vrgin, anci all the Saints. 
fiOSU Pope Honiface IV. 

6091 l*l»e Jewsof Anli< ch massacre the Christians 
611 Heraclius. Emperor of the East. 
eiSlThe Frencli Maires du Palais first introduced 

bv Clotaire as Hegerts. 
61 i!c/oi<.ir« J I sole Kiner of France, 



605 Auyistinc, ^Mouk. 
ob. 



Secuadus, Jlitt J!. 



OtlROXOLObiC Al T^BLE. 



40^ 



m. 



t)U 



015 
G16 

G18 
62^2 

625 



6-28 
632 

633 

636 

6.3 S 
640 



I'luatr'tiius PtTfvh.i. 



Gil 



6h 



6i5 
GSS 
64'J 

c.-.j 
Gs; 

655 
657 
658 

668 

669 
672 



675 



f.7o 



Queen Bruncchilda, aci;i:se(l of nuiuLerles? 

crimes, is put to deaih by Clotaire II. 
^ Pope Deus-iJcdit. 

Jerusalem taken bv the Persians under Cos- 
roes II. 
■• Pope Uoaiface V. 
Era of the Hegrra, or flight of Mahomet 

from Mecca to Medina. 
^ Pope Ilonovins 1. 

The Peisiaiis iinder Cosroes 11. with the 

JIuns. Ahari, and Sclavouians, besiege Con- 

siantinopje. 

Ddqobert awl Ch ivihert Klnsr-i «/" Fnince 

Abubeker succeeds Mahomet as Calipliale of 

the Saracens. 
.\biibeker dies, and is succeeded by Om.ir in 

the Caliphate. 
Jerusalem taken by Omar and the Saracens 

wlio keep possession of it 463 years. 
Sitrifjfit II. untl Clovis II. Kin^s of France. 
^ Pope Severinus. 
1[ Pope John IV. 

The Library of .Mexandria, founded by Plo- 

lemy Phihulelphus, is burnt by the Saracens. 

' Oil-itantine, K-nperor of tlie East for a 

few months, poisoned by his stcpmolber. 
flera^liOMcis and Tiberius III. Empe- 
rors of the F.ast 
Constm?*, son of CoQStanlinej Eniperor of 

the East. 
5? Pope Ibeodoius. 

Olnt:»n succeeds Omar in the Culiph.nte. 
Cyprus l;iken by the Saracens under Mawia. 
1[ Pope Martin I. 
The Saracens tuke Llltodcs, and destroy the 

Colossus. 
Childeric II. King of Ausirasicu 
^ Pope Euf;eniu8 I. 

A li Caliph of Arabia. — Mawia Caliph of Egypt 
11 Pope Vitalianus. 

The Saracens obtam Peace of the Emperor 

Constans, and agree to pay a yearly tribute. 

ConsUiitius V^ (Pogonatus) Emperor of 

the East. 
Sicily ravj»8;ed by the Saracens. 
U Pope Xdefxlatus. 

The S »racens ineir.ctually besiege Constanti 
nople. — Their fle*?! «!esiroyed by the Creek 
fire used by Calhnicns. 
The Saracens attempt to land in .S[)ain, nut 
are repulsed by Wamba Kin- of the Visi- 
KOth«<. 
•' Pni)e Donus. 
6r9{7Vj.'>nj/ //'. King of all France. 

1[ Pope Agatho. 

6S0 If The sixth General or CEcuracnical CounctI 

of Constantinople. 
6S2!l[ Pope Leo TI. 
tS-hJl Pope Benedict 11. 

' 35* 



Mahomet, i'roj-i.t!, oii. 



fsodorus Hisj>. ob. 



George Pi sides, ob. 



Ildefur.sL's, Ilisl.A 



Paulus .ffgiticta, Mca. 
CalUuicus, vl/u/A. A 



.\damnanus .Scotus, 
IJisi. fl. 



400 



CHRONOLOGICAL TADLE. 



\ A.D 
68^ 



G8fi 



fiS7 



lUtrtr otit Prrso*\i. ' 



1[ J'ope John V. 

Jnstiniiin 11. Emperor of the East. 

The Rriiniis totally subdunl hy ilie Saxons, 

retreat into Wales and (.'ornwsll. 
EpiriW the Saxon petietrHtes iiorthvnnl to 
Angns, but is slain b} JJrc<!ei the I'ictish 
KinK. 
f< Poj.e Conon. 

Ceadwalia King of Wesscx subdues Sussex 
nnd Kent. 
..,,. ^ I*oj>o Sereins. 

6'jOJVpin Meristel, ^Mnire iln Pah.is, defeats 
Thierry and acquires the chief power in 
I'l ance. 
(,f)>}Clovis III. Klv^ of France. 
C94'.IuRtihian II. deihronetl, mutilated, ami ban- 
ished by I.eontins. 
Cfj5 ChihUbert III King of France. 

[.rnnliil« Kmpcror of the E:."-' — ''« f^ron- 

e<l and muldatcd by i 

097 Ap«in)ar or 'l'il*eriti3 Empnur ui ihi 

East, . . 

coo The Saracens defeated by John the Painciai:. 

7(u>i 

The Saracens ajjain deffate<l with Rreal 

I Mau-hier Ia lleraciius, brother ol Tiberius 
701 !<' I'ope John' VI. 
70lJt«tii'ian H. escapes f rem prison, dcrtatsli 

I licrins, and \h n-^torrd to the thronr. 
707 'Justinian II. deft aleil by the liulyaniu.s. 
708 11 I'l.pe S.sinnius. 

*[ I'ope Odista'iiine. ■ 

7ll|PliilippictlS iJarthnos Emperor of the 
East. 

f^ iDmr.jiert III. King nf France. 

I 71 1'Afia^ta'iiil'* 11. Emperor of the East. 

Spai • coiKpierc.'. by the Suntcens under .Muc», 

I the C.tneral of ihe Caliph \\ alid. 
ri4r Pope (ireporv II. 

I'rh00(l0?in?< III. Emperfji- of the East. 

[Chat'es .Maiiel, .^A;«>e </m /'«/W«, govern* 

all France lor twenty six years. 
TWi'Lildnic J I. A'l\(r »/ Fiancr. 
- — Ten (li.e Isuriiin') Emperor of the Fast. 
720 0mnr II. besieges Constantinople \vilhoul sue 

I cts". ^ *■ 

J'luerrv U . Kinsr of France. 

7'2GLco foVbids the vo,s|,ip ol in.ngfS, whicfc^ 
I occasions a s'cat rcb«llion ot h » subjects 

I ' the l'<'p¥ defentliuR tin. ]Mnctice. 

I 7'2S Leo orders I'cpt^^''"'-"''^' '" ''*^ seized, and 
sent to Constantinople; but the order is 
frustratuil. and Leo confiscates the imperial 
dcmains of Sicily and Calabria. 
729Tlie SarKCons ravage (iallia \aibo'tncn»is 
! 7;>: ^f I'ope <;re!or\ 11 1. 

' 7.>'j',Charlrs Mariel defeats the Saracer.s bcl'A ccn _^ 
I i 'l"oui<i -ind I'oicticrs. 



Achab Saracen, Coz/.o/a 



Muca the Saracen, th. 



73S Bcdc, fl/V. o\ 



eHRONOLOCICAL TABLE. 



407 



A.n I 



740 

741 
742 



743 

745 
74 y 

751 

752 
753 



/.T» 



'50 



757 



7i'J 
7«i'J 


767 
7GS 


770 


77'2 






Leo persecutes Uie Aloiiks. 

Uealh of Pelstguis, w ho preserved the Chris- 

tiaii monarcliy in Asturia. 
The duchy of Spolelo seized by the Normans 

— liecovered by the Pope. 
^ Pope Zachara. 
Chdderic III. King of France. 
Constantine (Copronymus) Eraperor of 

the East. — Eneray to images and saint- 

vorship. 
Constaniiiie defeats and puts to death Arta- 

bazdus, who had seizet! Constantinople. 
Consiantinc <lesttc}s the Htetof the Saracens. 
The race of the Abassidjc become Caliphs of 

the Saracen^. 
Pepin fie BvefJ King oj France, founder 

of the second or Curlovingiun race. 
• Pope Stephen 111. 
Astolphtis Kinpj of the Lombards erects the 

Dukedom of Kavenna, and claims from the 

Pojie the Dukedom of Koine. 
Pope .Stephen requests the assistance of Pepin 

ai^ainst the Lombards. 
l*ij)in invades Italy, and strips Astolphus 

of his new possessions, conftrniiu them on 

the Pope as a temporal sovereignty. 
•Vlmanzor Caliph nf the Saracens, a great 

enciiiiraj;er of learnint;. 
Desiderius or Diiiitr proclaimed King of the 

Lon\b:iids. with the Pope's conseut. 
Abtlalndiman I. t.skcs the title of King of 

(Jonlova and is the founder of the splen- 
did dominion of the Moors in Spain. 
*\[ I'ope I'aul I. renews the alliance with De- 

ai'lcriiis 
•[ Pope Stephen 111. quarrels with Desiderius. 
.Mmanzor builds Bagdat, and makes it the 

scat of the empire ot ihe Caliphs. 
The Turks ravage Asia Minor. 
Charles Cthe gieatj and Cwloman Kings 

of France. 
H Pope Steplicn IV^ 
Consiuniine dissolves tlie Monasteries in the 

Kast. 
Chwiemagne tile C\Tonarch of France. 

makes war fl^alnst the Saxons. 



778 

77^ 

7^i 



lUitftriotij Persons, 



Fredegaire, Hist.Jl. 



^ Po|»o Adrian I 

Charlemagne defeats Desiderius, and puts an 

end to the kuij'doni of the Lombards, which 

ha«l sm'jb sted 206 }car*. 
T.OO IV. Ein|)eror of the Fast 
IJattlc of Roncezvalles between the Christians 

a'»d '\loors iR Spain, where Rolando is 

killed. 
Clr^rlcmajjnc conquers; Navarre and Sardinia. 
C\^nstrintilie (Por{)hyroi;enitus) Emperor 

of the East 
Irene, Empress, Regent in her son's rainon- 

ty, keeps liim iu entire subjcctioD, 



'CO Jo. DatnacenoS) oh. 



400 



CHRONOLOt.lCAL TABLE 



t. n.i 



78Hlrcnc ic-estnblisiies ihe worsliip ol" inmgtrs. 
7S5|i-'f"arlein;ip;iie sultddes the Saxont. 

.!l:troati Alrascliul Caiipli <il tl»c b:«rHCt'n». 

iiuatict aacl rv«> ages a ^tkrX 



iitutii I Jii I Hrriatit. 



n\' ihe e(nj)ir» 
7S0,Con«t:iti(ine assumes the povcronieiil ol' Uie 

I empire, ami iinprisotis his rnotlier. 
7Sr Vh<i Daiic-i undf r ificir pirale chiefs, «»r \ i- 
killer, for the first lime lanil in Kii;^l:in»l. 

n'l'he seventh (icm-ial Couitcil or »fcoitil (»t 
Nice, is hflJ. 
788 Irtiie p'lts to dtaih Lcr lou Contlunline, and 

I is pr<>c!:unied S4ilc Kn»piv'i$. 
79J Irene proposes to nurry Charlemagne, which 
beiii^ (iMappruvfd ol hy her »iih|ccl'», she »% 
dellironcd, and ciinhnt:-! to a inomrtlcrv. 
Nicephoru-^ EmiKii-or of the Eatt. — Here 
1 begins the Lower or Ciret-k empire 
7y4CharhMim':ne d^fcalt and utterly extirpates 

I the lioi.s. 
79J H Hope Leo III. 

7<jrrrhe Saracetij ravage (japoadocja, Crrirus, 
Ilho<l<'« kc. 

llNicep^<>nls auoeiates his sun Satut*acius in 

ihc ILnipire. 
8<I(J| 

New F.MPiRr. or trk Wit«T. — Charlemagne 

crf)wniM! Kmprrnr at R«4llr. 
Jlanjun \hasch>d ciiirtt the alliance of Char- 
! lemagne. 

SlllMichr^el (CuropaUlcs} Hmjici-or ofihe East. 
SI.VI^^O (the Armenian) K.mp«Tor of the East 

Almamnn. Cal.ph of the Saracens, a great 

encniirj;;i-r ol Irarniiijj. 
81-4 Arw/« f /« DebontuureJ Emperor and A'inj? 

of t'mnce. 
8lti The Pastern Empire rnvj»«cd by earthquakes, 
famine ronfl.«fjri«tioiis, ke. 

,^ Pope Strphrn V. 

817 f Pope Pascal 1. 
Lewis (Ic Dc\i.) diTides the empire among hi* 

E iM. 

82l|Michap| (KViUis or lUe Stammerer) Em 
peror of the E»*t 



Geo. SyncelJus,y?. 



go: 



801 Paul Diacotius. ob 
.Mesue. .iiub. ,Meilji. 
8(4 Alcuin, J/itt. ob. 



Charlemagne, o6. 



SjJH Hop, E.i;»cne 11. 

<!5gb?rt unite* the i "i '■'' Saxon 

Mri.iiiich;.— lUj;. Uk- kingdom of 

England. 
5l Pope Naleniiiic. 

8'J«in'0"-<'"g*"">- 

8J'J r'^-'f^)')!!!!-* Emperor of the E:\s(. 

S.i8|CrljcUT)0lj Kin? of England. 

-,Thc Sc t* under Kennclti cuurci^> suhiiut- 

the Picts 
H\o\L(rnLlliirS Emperor of Germany. 

|C/i'.r/.« C t/t- Hid) Kintr nf France. 

841 L'lharius deft-ated by hstwo brother! m the 
' UaUle of Fcmenai, and d'^noscd. 



Alburaazar, *2ir /• 



cuRo:;oLOGrcAL table. 



409 



831 



ili:.Stri„-:t PtrsiilU. 



Eginhai t, ILst. ob. 



.\chn»et, .htron.Jl. 



■1 n., 

8i'JjL/;/r/.S' (of Bavaria) Eiupctor olGermaDy. 
— — jMicIjacl III. Ktni»eior ofthe East. 
8i.)l I'hf Normans pltinder ilie city of Rouen. 
Krrmtlh .M'Al|.iu King ot Scots sul.tkits the 
I'iclisli kinjduiQ, ami uniies it to Uiu bcol- 
lisii. 
8H^ l*oi>e Scrims II r. 

845Ti,e .VoiiTiaiis plutHler Hamburgh, and pene- 
trate Milo^dcTiuany. 
8*7 fy Pope Leo IV. 

^*''>riie Vencliau fleet desUoMd by the Sara- 
cens. *^ 

^ Pope Joan, supposed to hare filled the Pa- 
pal chair tor two \ears. 

Basihus associnie<l Emperor of the P'ast. 
SSi'Lkwih II. Eniieror of (itrn)any. 
85rtetbC{luld and »^rl):lbrrt K.ngs of Engia 
85811 l'^i>«-' Nithol.is I. 
.SO'"i^ti)iil'CD King of England. 
SCr Tlic Danes ravage England. 

iHasilius sole Eniperor of the EasL 

|lf Pope Adrian II. 

nPhotius, Patriarch of Constantinople, exeora 
imiiiicatcs Pope Adrian. 
S7 jflljrcD (the Great) King of England. 

S[ I'ope John VII!. 

875|(juARLKS (the Hald) Emperor of C/erroany. 
Harold llarfagtr unites the provinces of Nor- 
way, coiujueis Orkney, Shetland and the 
Mt brides, and appoints Earli to govern 
tlicm. 
Lewis (ilie Stammerer') Emiieror of Ger- 878 Ilubbn, Dane, o6. 

many and A'ltur oj France. 
Lru-is 1 1 J. and Carlotnan Kius^t of France. 
The kingdont of Aries begins. 
Chahlks (the (iifjss) Enjperor of Germany 

and A'i>i5' nf Frame. 
Ha\aL;e9 of the Normans in France. 
ll'Poyc .Murinus 



»n»l- Photini, Pair. ob. 
Nennius, JJist.fl* 



870 Godescalcus, tb. 



874 Ado, J/ist. c/6. 



87 
879 



880 



S'Jl 
890 
S9r 

808 
1)0(1 



882^ - 

8«-4nI '*'^pt- Adrian III. 4 

880 I-.no (the Philosopher) Empei-or of the East 

The University of O.xford fonntled by Alfied 

887 VitNULH Emperor of (ierniany. 

i'hc Normans h^sicRc Paris, nhich is gallant- 
ly defended by Hishop Goseiin and Count 
F'^ndes. 
8S8 liiides or Odo King of Fraucr 
H'Ji! .Mfrcd tl»e (ircat coujpoiethis Code of Laws, 
and divides Engl.ind ioto Counties, llun 
dreils, and 'I'ythiiigs. 
*'< Pope Formosns. 
Po|»c Ste[)h«n ^ H 
Pope John IX 
Charles J II f the Simple J Al tig of France. 



882 IIincon)arU8, ob. 

883 Scotus Erigcua, ob. 
Nicetas, /fisf. f'- 
AW.cd,/?. 

A I ho, Poet,f. 



Pope Benedict I\'. 
Ltwis IV. Ejopcror of Gcrroanr. 



410 



CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. 



lUujttii'Jti.i Fernitn". 



901 
•JO 4 



^DtUarD (tlie Elder) succeeds Alfred as King 
of Etij^laiid. 

51' Pope Leo V. 

9031 n I'ope Sergius III. 

911 CoNHAi) 1. Emperor of Germany. 

Con>tantine 1 X. Emperor of the East. 

Q12lTlie Normans are eslablisiied in Normandy 

! under liollc, 
5| Pope Atl;(.,l!>3iu3. 
i[ I'ope Laiidon. 

9iijCor!S?antine ;,nd Romanus Rmpeiws -S 

the Enst. 

k Pope John X. 

- — 'The Uaiverslty of Cambriilge founded by Ed 

j ward ihe Elder. 
g^OjHENUT (tlie Fowler) Emperor of Germany. 
9'2.3 /'?ot/o/'/'A A"? Zip- of France. 
0^8\^t\)tUan Ivmg of England. 

k Pope Leo VF. 

9'29lf Pope Steidipn VIII. 
931 pi PopeJoluj XI, 

)tr- Else of Ihe fiepublic of Pisa. 

City of Geneva overrnn by the Saracens. 
Otho (tbe Great) Emperor of Germany. 
^ Pope Eeo VI [. 

Letvis IV. ( (F Ontremer ) King of France. 
^ Pope Steplun IX. 

IIowel-Dha King of Wales, an eminent law- 
giver. 

(iHDmimtl \. King of England. 
1[ Pope IMirljins XIII. 
^IPope Ax«pet. 
(*HDrtD King of England, 
Lotharius King oj France. 
<^DIDJ1 I^i'ig fif England. 
<1 Pop^c John XII. 

Romanus II. Emperor of the East. 
<25D(yiU* King of England. 
^1 Pope Eeo Vill. 't 

Nicephonis Pliocas P'.mperor oftbeEa»t 
Otho the Great contjuers Italy. 
^ Pope lolin Xm. 

Antioi-h recovered from the Saracens b} 
Nieephorus. 



936 



939 
940 

9+1 
943 
946 
948 

9.54 

956 
9:". 9 

963 

964 
965 
96T' 



M- 



Azopbi, ^r. Ast. fl. 



942 Elides dc Cluni, ob. 



Alfarabius, »4r. Aet.fi. 



969 
97'2 
973 



John ZomisSGS Emperor of the East. 

f\ Pope Benedict VI. 

Otiio II. Emperor of German}'. 



974 cr popo Poniface VII. 



970 Luitpi-antlj/Zis/. ob. 



975 



076 

97?r 



Kenneth Til. annexes the Britons of Strath- 

ekiyd to the Scottish kingdom. 
*{[ Pope lienedict VII. 
Basiiius and Constandno X.. Emperors 

of the East. 
<!3t5tesrtl !'• King of England. 
€t!)Clret» il. l^insr of Eniriand. 



P83jOTiio IH. Emperor of Gcrmanv. 
984^1 Pope John XiV. 



CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. 



411 



St5|1f i'opeJohn XV. 

'^Letvis V. C^(^ ^^'^^"^cant) Kiiiff of France. 

^%7JIugh Capet Xing' of I'TanceyJonnder of the 

I third race of the French Aings. 
991 Tlie Arabic numerai ciphers fii-&t introduced 

I into Europe. 
<i^Q\Rof)ert fthe Wise) King of France. 

|«[f Pope Gregory \. 

991M[ Pope Silvester 11. ' 

loooj I 

|()02!l£E?fnT H. Emperor of Germany. j 

:Great rniissacre of the Danes bv EthclrecM 

King of England. ' | 

1003l[Pope John XVI. i 

n\ Pope John XVII. 

I004|lf Pope John XV 111. 

1 005, Churches first M^iie in the Gothic style, 

I009;1f Pope Sergius IV. 

I0l£«[ Poi»e Benedict VIII. 

lOlSJThe Danes, under Sueno, get possession of 

i England. 
! 5 jThe Manicheon doctrines prevalent in France 

I and Italy. 

lOlGtc^DmimU II. (Ironside) King of England. 
1017 (iCanUte tlie Dane (the Great) King of Eng 
land. 
The Normans invade Italy. 
5f Pope John XIX. or XX. 
jCoNiiAD II. (the Salic) Emperor of Ger- 
many. 
1025 Musical characters invented by Guido Are- 
tino. 

Romanus Argyrus Emperor of the East. 

Henry 1. King of France. 

% Pope Benedict IX. 
l034|Michael IV. Emperor of the East. 
l036l];).U0lll (Harefoot) King of England. 
I0J9jiihWRX III. Emperor of Germany. 

(Jtantite II. or l^arDicamit^ King of Eng- 

land. 

Macbeth usurps the throne of Scotland, by 

j the murder of Duncan. 

©DtoarD I IF. (tne Confessor) King of Eng- 
land, restores the Ba.xon line. 

Michael (Calaphales) Emperor of the East. 

Constantine (Monomachus) Emperor of' 
the East. 

The Turks, under 
Persia. 



1018 
102 i 



1028 
1031 
1033 



1042 



1043 



1004 Abbo of Fleury, 

Thtd. ob. 
1008 Almoin, Hist. ob. 
1010 Rhazes, »£r. Fhil. 

ob. 



Guido AretJDO, Monk. 
;l. 



Avicenna, Arab. 
ob. 



Med 



Tangrolipix, subdue 



1045J5[ Fope Gregory W. 
104rv'{[ Pope Clement II. 
1048:^ Pope Damasus II. 

I0i9n[ Pope Leo IX- the first Pope who main 
tained a regular army. 

1054 Theodora Empress of the P!ast. 

Pope Leo IX. taken prisoner by the Nor- 

I mans. 



4i2 



CHRONOLOGICAL TARLE* 



A. D. 
[055 



1056 
1057 



105S 



1059 

1060 
1061 



1055 
106S 



1068 



1070 
107J 

1073 
1076 

1078 
1079 

1081 



1084 
1086 
1087 



1093 
1095 

1097 
1098 



^\ i'u^m Victor U. 

riie Turks lake Ba5;dat, and overturn the 
empire of the Caiipi.s. 

H Kjs R Y ly . E m peroi- of H ei- ui any , 

.VJALcoLai Hi. (Canmore) King of Scotland. 

Isaac (Comnenusj Emperor of the East. 

if Pope Stephen X. 

"j[ Po!>e Nicholas II. 

rUe Saracens driven out of S!ciiy hy Robert 
Guiscard tiie Xorman. 

Coristautine Xil. (Ducas) Enaperor of 
the East. 

PJiilip 1. King of France. 

Rise of the faction of the Gueiphs and 
GliibelliPiCS. 

Henry IV, of Germany on his knees asks 
pardon of the Pope. 

^[ Pope Alexander II. 

The 'furks lake Jerusalem from the Saracens 

il^aSJolD II. King of England, reigned nine 
months. 

2!2Hil((am (the Conqueror) King of England. 

Romanus Diogenes Emperor of the East. 

Edgar Atheling seeks refuge in Scotland. 

Margaret, sister of Edgar Atheling, married 
to Malcolm King of Scotland. 

The feudal law introduced into England. 

iMichael Dacas Emperor of the East. 

51 Pope Gregory VII. 

The Emperor Henry IV. excommunicated 
and deposed by the Pope. 

NicephorUS j^Boton) Emperor of the East. 

Doomsday-book begun by William the Con- 
queror. 

Alexius I. (Comnenus) Emperor of the 
East. 

Henry IV. Emperor, besieges Rome. 

re-crowned Emperor of Germany. 

^ Pope Victor HI. 

II Pope Urban II. 

S^HUUam II. (Rufus) King of England. 

St. Margaret Queen of Scotland died. 

Donald Bane King of Scotland. 

Duncan II. King of Scotland. 

Institution of the order of the Knights of 
Jerusalem. 

The first Crusade to the Holy Land. — Peter 
the Hermit. 

Newcastle on Tyne built by Malcolm Can- 
more. 

Magnus Barefoot, King of Norway, reduces 
Orkney, Shetland, and the Hebrides, to 
complete subjection to his crown. 

The Crusaders take Antioeh. 

Edgae King of Scotlaiif^ 



Guido of Amiens, Foety 



Illustrious Persom. 



Suidas-T?. 



Const. Afer, Med. ji. 



Will, of Spires, Math.Jl. 

Will, of Apulia, 7^06^. A 

1088 Berenger, Poet of 
Provence^ ob. 

1089 Abp. Lanfranc,o6. 
Gualfredo of Sienna, 

Poetyfl. 



CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. 



'* 



J.n. 
1099 



1 100 



I lllustnoHs Persons. 



The Kniglits of St. John instituted. '^oau^o the Cjd, 06. 

II Pope Paschal U. 



Ijtm^ I. (Beauclere) Kiag of England. 
Guiscard of Normandy takes the title of Kin^ 
of Naples, ° 

Baldn'in King of Jerusalem takes Ptolemais. 
MEXRY V. Emperor of Germany. 
AtEXAifBEB I. King of Scotland. 

llIO ^ Pope Gelasins II. 

The order of Knights Templars instituted. 

John (Comnenus) Emperor of the East 

% Pope Galixus 11. 

David I. King of Scotland. 

% Pope Honorius II. 

Wla i^^;!!'''-""'^^ ^^- Emperor of Germanv. 
Ml Pope Innocent II. 

%tZ^\:}t\\ King of England. 

Lev>is VJirieJuncJ King of France, rti^^r- 

ned to Eleanor of Guienne. 
The Pandects of the Roman law discovered 

at Amalphi, 
Conrad III. Emperor of Germany. 
The Scots, under David I. defeated by the 

English in the battle of the Standard. 
Alphonso I King of Portugal, rescues that 

kmgdora from the Saracens, 
The Canon law first introduced into England. 
Stephen King of England taken prisoner in 

the battle of Lincoln, by the troops of Ma- 

tuda. 
Stephen recovers his kingdom. 
!| PopeCdelestinusII. 

Manuel (Comnenus) Emperor of the East. 

5[ Pope Lucius II. 

^ Pope Eugene III. 

The second Crusacle, excited by St, Bernard. 

Ihe study of the Civil Law revived at Bo- 
logna. 

The Canon Law is collected by Gratian, a 
Monk ot Bologna. 

FkedkuickL (Barbarossa) Emperor of Ger- 
many. 

Malcolm IV. King of Scotland. 

ti Pope Anastasius IV. 

Treaty of Winchester-Compromise between 

Kmg Stephen and Prince Henry. 
!l)mr2 II. fPlantagenet) King of England. 
II PopeAdriantV. " 

The parties of the Guelphs and Ghibeliine 

disturb Italy. 
! 157 The Bank of Venice instituted 
U58 Inteniew between Henry H.'and Malcolm 
IV. at Carlisle. 
51 Pope Alexander III. 
The Albigenses maintain heretical doctrines. 

36 



1102 

1104 

1105 
1107 



1119 
1124 



ll;30 
1135 
1137 



1: S 



1139 

U-iO 
1141 



IU3 



1105 Raymond Count 
de Thoulouse, Po. ob 

1110 AlhazenMath. fl. 

1113 Sigebert, Hist. ob. 

AnnaCoranena, Hist.fl, 

Lauren zio of Verona, 
PQet,Ji. 

Gunthcr, Gcrra. Fo fl. 



1144 
1145 

1147 
1150 

1151 

1152 

1153 



1154 



1159 
11 160 



Will, of Malmsburv, 
Hist.Ji. 



'*(• 



1143 Peter AbeIard,o&. 



Geoff, of Monmoutli,/, 



Ben Edris 

Geoff.fu 

Eustathius, 
llom.Ji, 



of Nubia, 



Com, 071 



Sylvester Gerald, JJlst. 



1163 Eloisa, ob. 



414 



CPfRONOI.OGICAL TABLE. 



, 1. n. 

11104 



I If) 5 
117- 

II. so 



1181 

1183 

1185 



1187 



118S 
1189 



^__^ ) Uluxtituui Prrsons. 

iMSlilution of ihe order of Teutonic Kniglitsil'tier Louibard, ob. 

in Germany. 
T. IJeckct condemned by the Council of Cla- Abea Ezra Theol /?. 

rendon. 

•V^iLLiAM (the Lion) King of Scotland. 
T. Becket manicred at Canterbury. 
Conquest of Ireland by Henry II. 
Philip Jlugiistus KiJig of Ft aiice. 
Alexis 11. (Comnenus) Emiieior of the 

East. 
^ Pope Lucius III 
An.lionicus (Comnenus) Emperor of tlic 

East. 
^ I'ope Urban III. 

.jj^ac Ani!;eliis Emperor of the East. 
% Pope Gregory VIU- o . i- 

The ci<y of Jerusalem taken by Saladm 
If Pope Clement lU 



Hen. of Huntingdon, j'?, 
I ICG Aelred, Hist. ob. 

Rim. de Glanville,/. 
Joseph of E.\eter,//. 



Walter de M.'ipes,/?. 



1195 
1198 



1109 
I'i'iO 
i'J02 



I '203 
1204 



!'208 



1210 

1212 
1214 
1215 



Jolin of Salisbury, ob. 

„ . .,._ Brito .•\rmoricus, Po.y?. 

KicI;iJCrt 1. (Ci-'ur de Lion) King of England. jGiraldus Cambrensisyj. 

The third Crusade, under Uiehard 1. and Phi- U'ill. of Newburgh,^. 
lip Augustus. 
1190 Hkxut \\. Emperor of German). 
119MJ Pope Cxlestinus HI. 
1192 Richard I. deieals Saladin in tlie battle of As-Rich, of Iloveden, iJist 
calon. *'• 

Guy of Lnsignan King of Jerusalem. 

Alt^.xius Angelus (the Tyrant) Emperor of 

the Elast. 
PuiLU' Emperor of Germany. 
^[ Innocent III. 
J.q\)\\ King of England. 

The foiirth Crus;ide sets out from Veiucc. jPeter of Bloii, Nist. oi). 
Constantinople taken by ilie French and Ve- Gerv. of C^nttrbury,^, 

Alexin' and MurbziiphluS Emperors of Saxo Grammaticus,/ 

the East. 
[iaMwili I. Emperor of Constantinople, and 
Theodore I. (Lascaris) Emperor of Ni- 

cTca 
Tbe Inqnisilion estahlibhcd by Pope Innocent 

HI. 

flenry Emperor of Constantinople. 

O cur. IV. Emperor of Germany. 

London incorporated, obtains a charter lor pj,, Gaulticr de Chatil 

electin- its Mayor and Magistrates. ^ j ion, /^of/.^^. 

Crussde "against the Albigenses, under S.mon 

de Monlfort. 
P'redeiiick. H. Emperor ol Germany. 
\i.E:tAM)En 11. Khig of Scotland. 
Magna Ciiarta signed by King John. 
121Gpi7enrjJ HI. King of England. 

'PeteVand John Ducas Emperors of tlic 

East. 



1206 Averdioes Med 

oh 



i2l9|Robert Emperor of the East, 



CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. 



!-A. D 



1227 



1228 

1234 

1237 

1211 
1243 
1248 
1249 
1251 
1254 



ISloI^amieLta taken by the Crusadeis. 
I22.'^^^^W* VII l. King of France. 
1226 Institution of the orders of St. Derninic ami 
St, Francis. 
H Pope IJoiiorius III. 
St. Le-u'is IX. King of France. 
II Pope Gi'egory IX. 
Gen^iskan and the Tartars overrun the empire 

ol the Saracens. 
Baldwin II. French Emperor of Cocstan 
tinople. 

The Inquisition committed to tlie Dominician 
Monks. 

liudsia brought under subjection by the Tar- 
tars. 
If Pope Ccelestinus IV. 
If Pope Innocent IV. 
The fifth Crusade under St. Lewis. 
Alicxaxder III, King of Scotland, 
Conrad IV. Emperor ot German}-. 
^ Pope Ale.vander IV. 

h-.lerregnura in the empire of Germany, fron 
the dfcuth of Conrad IV. in 1254, to the 
election ot Kodolph in 1273. 
Theodore II. (Lascaris) Emperor of Ni 

caea, 
Bagdat taken by the Tartars.— End of the 

empire of the Saracens. 
John (Lascaris) Lmperor of Nicjsa. 
Michael (Palseologus) Emperor of Nic£ca. 
The FiaRellants preach baptism with blood, 
II Pope Urban IV. 
The Greek Emperors recover Constantinople 

from the French. 
The Norwegians invade Scotland and are de- 
feated by Alexander 111. in the battle of 
LargB, 
5i Pope Clement IV. 
The Deputies of Roroughs first summoned to 

Parliament in England, 
Mcnry IFl. of England taken prisoner in the 
battle of Lewes, 
1265|ChHries Count of Anjou King of Sicily 
{->70 Philip III. {the Bold) KiuP of France. 
1271 V^Pope Gregory X. 

127i '"*"' ' 

1273 




1255 
1258 

1259 

1260 

1261 
1263 
126i 



1224 Raymond Count 
de Thoulouse, ob. 



Gengiskan, 0(^. 



1229 Accursius Ictus, ^. 



William of Brittany, 

Po. 
Nicolas do Bray, Po.f. 



1260 Albufaragi, ///a/. 



1259 Mat. Pari?, Hist, 
ob. 



I27C 



1277 
1281 
1282 

1283 



(i:Dteard I. (Longshanks) King of England. 

RoDOLPH (of Hapsburg) Emperor of Ger- 
many, first of the Austrian familv 

Hi Pope Innocent V. ' 

11 Pope Adiitm V, 

1! Pope John XXL 

^I Pope Nicholas III. 

1; Pope Martin IV. 

The Sicilian Vespers, when 8,000 French 
were massacred in one night. 

AndronicilS I . (PalKologus} Emperor of tlie 

East. 



1274 St. T, Aquiaas,oi 



1C80 Albertus Ma^* 
Phil. ob. 

Joannes a Janua, Gr. /?• 



i^^^^r 



CHKO.NOLOGK AL TABLE. 



1286 
1-288 



1291 



12831 1'he coiujuest of Wales by Eihvard 1. 
I2r.8p[ Pope Ht.noiius IV. 

Philip IV. {t/ie F(iir) Kin^ of France. 

M AKOAiiFT (of Norway) Queen of Scotland. 

1l Pope Nicholas IV. 

Interregmini iit Scotland for two years. — Com- 
petition between Hruce am! JJnliol for the 
Crown. Decided by tdward 1. 

Ptok'nuils taken by the Tuiks.— End of the 
Crusades. 

1292 John nallol King of Scotland. 

Ai>oi.i'Hu.s (of Nassau) Emperor of Germany. 
5[ Pope Ci«;lcsLinns \'. 
,1293, jubilee first celebrated at Home. 

I [From this year there is a regular successien 

1 \ of Eriglisii Parliaments. 
'129411 Pope Honiface N'lll. 

jl2'i5iMichael AndrOtiicU9EmpeK)roftheEast 
'129C'lntirregnum in Scotland for eight years — Sir 
' William Wallace nobly sujfports the libert) 
of his country, defeats tiie English at Stir 
ling, and dri\es ihem out of the kingdom. 
Il298 Wallace chosen Regent of Scotland, — defeat- 
ed !it Falkirk. 
\lbeut I. (of Austria) Emperor of Gcrmnny 
The present Turkish empire begins under 
Ottoman in Hithynia. 
129'J ^Ottouian or Othoman fust Sultan and 
founder of the Turkish ewpire. 



Illustrioiii Pcrtuut. 



l2S4PwOger lSan:nii,rful 

6b. 

12S6Albulfr\ragms,/yjcf/. 
cb. 



1295 I^runelio Latini, 

lihct. ob. 



13001 
1301 

1302 



'1301 

JK'SJ 
loUr 
1307 

130S 



Ciarobue, Painter ^ ob. 



Quarrel between I'hilip the Fair and Pope 

l!ni.if:(ce Vin. 
Comyn and Frazer defeat the Englibh thrice 

in oric day. ■ 

Phe Mariner's Compass said to be discovered 1303 Abram Ben Casa, 

at Naplfs. I .4irryn. ob. 

Wallace betrayed, delivered up, and put to 

death by Edward I. 
1[Pope Clement V. , | ^ 

RoBiUT 1, (Bruce) King of Scotland, P 

The establisiimenl of the S»\is3 Republics. 
0^^■'3iTCD II. King of England. 
HEsnT Vll. Emperor of Germany. 
Oonali killcil at Plorence. 
The te-it of the Popes transfei red to Avignon 



.Job. Duns Scolua,"'©^. 
1308 Jo. Fordun, A«r. 



I for Bi:vonty years. 
) Uho<>^ taken by the Knight 



1310lUho<>^ taken bv the Knients of St. John of 
Jerusalem. 

1311 Pierce Caveslon, favourite of Edward II. put 
to death. , 

1312 The Knights Templars suppressed by Phdip 

the Fair. 

1314 The Scots under Robert Bruce defeat the En- 

glish under Ed^nr.! II. r.l Bannockburn. 

Lewis V. ((»f Bav.nriu) limperor of Germany 

Le7Qis X. ( Hulin) Kijtg r.f Fraucf. 

1315 Jo/iH A'iiig of France. 
,1310 :[ Pope Jolwi XXI I. 



1315 Guy Earl ofWar- 
wick, oO, 



C-'HilONOLOGICjiL TABLE. 



^411 



1315 

1320 



f'/dlip V. (^the Long) King of Frunce. 
Vndfonicus H. (Pab:ologus) Emijeror of 
the East 



Illustrious Persuns. 



Bayiu. Lulli, Phil. ob. 
I51S Joinville, Hist, ob 



Daotc Alighieri, Po. ob. 



Charles; IV. {the Fair) King of France 

^DhurCl III. King of England. 

f^'h^l.p ri (of Vahis) King of France. 

^Orchanes or Urchan limperor of thehastKW. Castracani, o/^. 
i uiks. I ' 

13291 D^'inH. King of Scotland.— RandoJph 1530 Mortimer Earl of 

Earl Murray Kegent. Murch, 06. 

1.1311 I he I euioiic kniglits settle in Prussia. 
l,33.-'|E(lward Ualiol, assisted by Edward UI. is 

crowiied ui Scone King of Scots, but is soon 

driven out of the kingdom. 
1333Ca3iiuir III. (th-fireji) King of Poland. 
,'Tiie Scots defeated by Edward III. at Hal 

idoun hill, July ly. 
1334|T Pope Benedict XII. 

1340. Gunpowder invented by Swartz, a Monk of 
I Cologne. 
Oil painting said to be invented by John Van 

Eyk. 

I34I Jolin V. (Palseologus) Emperor oftheEast, » "^ 

John Cantaciizenos, his tutor, usurps the 
throne. 
I34-2l[ Pope Clement VI. 

13ifi liattle of Cressy, won by Edward III. and the 
Black Prince over the French. 
tJaitle of Durham, in which David II. of 
Sot'and is t.iken prisoner. 
l.JirCH-inLEs IV. EmiHirorof Germany. 

jNicola Uierizi assumes the government 
Itoine. 
nso'The Order of the Garter instituted by Ed 
ward III. 

'Peter (the- Cruel) Kmg of Castile. 

I.>5I ^'j/in //. King of France. 
'.o'2ll Pope Innocent VI. 

The Turks first enter Europe. 
IjSSJTIie Batlle of Poicliers in which John II. 
King of France is taken prisoner, and af- 
lerward.s hrouglit to London. 
1 3.59|«=* Amurath I. En»pcror of the Turks. 
13oe'l{ Pope Urban V. 

riic law pleadings in England clianged from 
French 10 English. 
{.^fiXU'h-irlea V. King of France. 
1370^ Po .e Gregory XI. 

voBKKT II. Kingof ScotV*nd. 

1377 riie Popes return from Avignon to Rome. 
l^lCV.rCl II K,ng of England. 
"VickliflTe's doctrines piopagated in England. 
l.sr.S The schism of the <louble Pojjcs at Unmt 
and Avignon begins and continues thirty- 
eiglit years. 

jU Pope Urban VI. Rome. 

1379k Poi)e Clement VII. Avignon. 



36* 



1345 Abulfeda, Hist. ob. 



■ Richard of Bury, ob. 



1 350 Jo. & Math, 
lani, Jlist.jl. 



Vil- 



1360 Ph. Villani, Ifist 



363 Edward Baliuljoi 



1374 F.Pctrari;h,P<».oA 

1376 G. l*occace, p,j. 
oh. 

—VA. Bhick Pr. ob. 

1377 Ralph lli-den, 
Hist ob. 



418# 



CHROXOrOGICAL TABLE. 



A.n. 

lj7y.SS i.NctsuALs Emptrcii- ot Germany, deiwscd 

I ill \40(>. 
1380 f/iir/f* /'/ A'ing' of Friivce. 

l':imerl:«iR* invailes ancl subdues (yhorassan 



{ Vluitt'vut Per toil. 



IJS3 



1381 Wat 'Y\ Icr's and Jack Strav* s insurrection in 
Kiigland. 
Peace between Ven'Ce f^id Genoa. 
Rills of Exchange first Wsed in Kn|>land. 
Cannon first used by the EnglibU in llie de- 
fence of Calais. 
l.384jPliilip tl»e f»oi(l Duke fif Hiugundy, succeeds 

I to tlie Karlddin ol Flanders. 
138G'Tamerlane subdues (leurj^ia. 
1388 Hallie of Oderburn between Percy (Hot 
spur) and Doujjias. 
^ Pope U.)nif:ue IX. 
KoHLMT 111. King of Scotland. 
t=> Uajazel I. Einpei-or of the Turks. 
Manuel II. (PaUolo^us) Emperor of the 

East. 
The Cape of CJood Hope discovered by the 

i'orlu^uese. ' * 

The Jews banished from France by Charles 

vr. 

* I'dpe Picnedirt Mil. 

Sigibinuiid King of llimgary defeated by 
liajavet I. 
l.>^>8| I'aini-Tlar.e subdues part of Hiudostan, an<1 
takes l)elhy. 
t)fnrn IV. king of England. 



\\:<\. of Westm. /A«r.o6. 
— r>ert duCucschu, ob. 



138 J 
1390 

1591 
1394 



I i9 



ll'H» 



1403 



U.ijnzet is taken prisoner by Tamerlane in the 

battle of .\ngorii^ 
ygt S .lyinan I. Emfferor i»f thrTmki. 
n^Ule f.f Ilomildonllill, in which the ScotsMoO Cenff. Chancer, 

nfe def.ated. i"^<'^ ob. 

BmiIc of Sluewsbury in vhitU Hotspur is 

killed. 
r Pope lnnfK:ent VII. 



14(4 

14(15 Deulli (if Timterlane. 

1406 James I. Kiui; of Srniland. 

< Pcipo (irepory XII. 
1409 Council (if I'laa, where Pope Gregor}- is dc 
poc«l. * 

: Musa Ernpcror of the Turk?. 

• Pope Alexander V. 
J"ssE (\lar«pi'« of Krandeiiburg) Emperor 

oi (iermanv. 

* Pope John XXIII. 
Sir,mMr\n Emperor of Germany 

The Cnivcrsily of St. Andrew's in Scotland 
fouiHJrd. 
l4l3V;)fiirU \'. KiiiR of Eni;laiHl. 
'•''•^Jouiicil of Constance, in whic'n two Popes 
were depo.std, and the Popedom rcmaioed 
vacant near llircc years. 

I <-> Mahoroet 1- Emperor of the Turks. 

\\'\\j Ufun V defeats the French at Agincourt 



141(1 



141 



1385 Wickliflr, ob. 



1595 Heni7 Knyghlou, 
Hist. qU. 



Froissart, ///*/. ob. 
Sir John liowcr, Poety 
ob. 



9^ 



1408 Owen GlendoU*, 
ob. 

1409 Nich. Flainfl, 

,iU/i. ob. 



141^ Era. Chrysoloras, 
ob. 



CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. 



419 



A.n.\ 



1415 

UlS 

uir 



H2U 
1421 
1422 



1425 
1428 
1431 



143S 

US 7 
1438 
1 4;39 

1440 



I4i4 

1 41-, 

1 440 
1447 



1450 
145.S 



1455 

145S 
1459 

1460 



14G1 



1468 



John H(«s3 condemnevJ by the Council ot Con 

stance t'nr heresy, and burnt. 
Jerome of Pi Jij5"ie condemned by the same 

Council and burnt. 
I Pojie Martin V. 
Paper first made from linen rags. 
The island of Madeira disco ered by the 

Portuguese. 
John V 1. (Pfllaologus) Emperor of the 

East. 
Arauraih besieges Constantinoi»le. 
« Amuraih II. Emperor of the Turks. 
Ibenrjl V'l. King of England. 
Charles VI f. A'tn^ of France. 
James I. King of Scots liberated from cap 

li\ity by the Flni;lijib. 
The Court of Sew:on in Scotland instituted 

by James I. 
Joan of Arc, the Maiil of Orleans, compels 

the English to raise the siege of that town 

Po[)e Eugene IV. 
Uisc of the Mwlici family at Florence. 
Paris recovered by I he French from the 

English. 
James il. King of Scotland. 
.\LBtuT 11. Emperor of Germany. 
Ke-unioo of the Greek and Ealin churches, 
i'he l*»agmMtic Sanction established in 

France. 
FiiEjiEuicK III. Emperor of Germany. 
Invcntiou of the art of }'rrnting by John 

Guttcnberg at Strasburg. 
I.adblaus King of ilungaiy killed in battle 

with the 'lurks. 

Constautine cPaljcologiis. Emperor of the 
East. 

Great inu!id«tion of the sea in Holland. 

' I'ope Nicholas V. 

liise of the Sforza fnmily at Milan. 

^ Mahomet II. Emperor of the Tuiks. 

Constantinople taken by the Turks — Extinc- 
tion OF ruK EiSTEiis Empire or xhk 

UOMANS. 

End of the English government in Fiance. 

^j Poi)e Culixtus III. 

linttle of St. Alban*8 where Henr}' VI. is 
taken jtrisoner by the Duke of Yoik. 

1i Pope Pius II. ^Eneas Sylvius. 

The art of engraving on copper invented. 

Jamls III. King of Scotland. 

Battle of Wakefield, where the Duke of Voi k 
is killed 

<6tlUl.^rD IV. King of England. 

f.t-Tvis XL King of France. 

Uattle of Touton, in which the party of Lan- 
caster is defeated. 

The Orkoey and Shetland i&laods given to 



lUuitrious PersoTLi, 



1419 P. AillyTheol. o/;. 
Alain C!iartier,i-'oe/,o6. 



1422 T. Walsingham, 
Hiat. ob. 



1494 Earl of Ruchan, 

Connt. of France, cb. 

Monstrclct, Hist.f. 
John d'.Vrc, cb. 

Scandcrbeg, /f 



I'homas WaUingham, 
JJisi.Jl. 

1443 L. Aretin, ob. 



44r Humph. D. of 
Gloucester, ob. 



1 4'') 9 Poggio oi Flo- 
rence, ob 

joJm rust,y? 

Howlcy, Po. ofBnit.Ji. 
1 464 Ccsiuo dc Medici, 

ob. 
14G5 Laur. Valla, ob. 
— iEn. Svlvius, 9b. 



420 



CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE 



J.D. 



1474 
1475 
1478 

147'J 



James III. of Scotland, as Uie dowry of 
Ciirlstiern of Denmark's daiiglittT. 

1470 Henry A'l. restored to the throne of Eng- 
land. 

1471 Battle ot Barnet, where Warwick is killed.— 
Battle of Tewkesbury, where the Lancas- 
terians are totally deflated. 

Bdward IV. restored. — Piiuce Edward of" 
Lancaster basely murdered fjy Claience 
and Gloucester. — Dt.ith of Henry VI. 

If Po;>e Sixtus IV. 

The Cape de Verd islands discovered by tlie 
Portuguese. 

Edward IV. invades France. — Peace of 
Pacquigni purchased by the French. 

The conspiracy of the Pazzi ai^ainst the Me- 
dici at Florence siippresscdr The authoiity 
of Ldrinzn de .Medici established. 

Ferdinand ami lsal)t-IIa unite the kingdoms of 
Arragon and Castde. 

Russia freed from subjection to the Tartar-^ 
by John. 

1481 ^ Bajazet II. Emperor of the Turks. 
148J Chuvlea VIII. Kinfr of France. 

v^rljtn.^ttl V. King f.f England.— Riehard 

Duke <if Gloucester Protector. 
Edward V. and his hiofber murdered. 
IRlcbarD HI. Kin<j of England. 
148i'll Pope Innocent \'II1. 
I ; oc IJattle of IJusworth, In which Richard III. is 
killed 
l^Ctirn Vn King of England, first of the 
Itouse of Tudor. — Union of the houses of 
Yoik and Lancaster. 
i488;JAMES 1\'. King of Scotland. 
1491 Granada taken by Ferdinand and Tsabellii. 
I — End ol the kin..;(!om of the Moors in 
I Spain. 
l49'21f Pope Alex.iuder VI. (Borgia.) 
llispanifjla and Cuba discovered by Christo- 
pher Columljus. 
1193'iVTaximilian I Emperor of Germany. 
l4y4|E\pedition of (Jharles \ ID. into Naples. 

jAlgebra first known in Enro])e. 

■ ■ |.\D>ei-ica discovered by Columbus. 
1497 The Poitnguese under V;tsco de Gama. dou- 
ble the Cape of Good Hope, and sail to the 
E.<st Indies. 
li^s\Le-uis XII King of Fiance. 

Sa\anaroh» burnt by Pope Alexander VI. for 
preaching against the vices of the clergy. 
149S Lewis XH. takes possession of the Milanese. 
Sebastian Cabot lands in North America. 

1500 

Brazil discovered by the Porlugtiese. 

Maximilian divides Germany into six eircles, 
aud adds four more in 1512. 
1503^ Pope Pius ]lf. 

ll Pope Julius U. 



lllusti ioui Persons, 



l4ro Regioraontanusj 
ob. 



li'l Th. aKcnopis, ob. 



1478 Theod. Gaza, o^* 



1481 Philelplius, ob. 
B. Platina, Hist. ob. 



Pious Mirandola,^. 

Pomponius Laetus, Hist. 

.A 
Alex, ah Alexandro, 

J/ist.Jj. 
]A[H) Boiardo, Poetyob. 
(Jhalcondiles, Ilist.jf. 
l491 Anniode Verlibo, 

ob. 

U9'2 W. Caxton. 

Pnnter, oh. 
Lorenzo de Medici, ob. 
Politian, ob. 



1409 Marcillus Ficiuus, 
ob. 



1502 Peter Martvr, ob. 

1503 Joy. Pontanus, oi". 



CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. 



421 



1517 



A- J).\ "" ' 

I503:13attle of Cerizoles, in Avhich the I'Venclj lose 

1 Naples. 
1504;Pliilip 1. King of Spain.-— 1506, Jane his 
Queen. 

1507 Madagascar eiscovered by the Portuguese. 

1508 League of Canibray against the Venetians. 
l509^i)ZnV2 VIIL King of England. 

jBattle of Agnadello, May 14. 

151 I.Cuba coRquered by the Spaniards. 

jfe^Selim I. Emperor of the Turks. 
15l2lThe French defeat the Venetians in the bat- 

I tie of Ravenna. 
1515.Battle of Flodden, fatal to the Scots, Sept. 11. 

The English defeat the French in the battle 

of the Spurs. 

James V. King of Scotland. 
1^ Pope Leo X. 

1515 \Francis I. King of France. 
jUattle of Marignan, in which the French de- 

j feat the Swiss. 

1516 Charles I. (Emperor Charles V.) King of 
Spain. 

Barbarossa seizes the kingdom of Algiers. 

The Reformation in Germany begun by Lu- 
ther. 

The Turks put an end to the reign of the 
Mamalukes in Egypt. 

Leo X. condemns Luther's doctrines. 

Charlos V. Emperor of Germany. 

Magellan exjjlores the South Seas. 

^ Solyman II. (the Magnificent) Emperor of 
the Turks. 

Sweden and Denmark united.' 

Afassacre of Stockholm by Christiern IL and 
Archl)ishop Trollo. 

If Pope Adrian VI. 

Gustavus Vasa King of Sweden. 

Cortez completes tlie conquesfc of Mexico 

The first voyage round the world performed 
by a ship of Magellan's squadron, 

Rhodes taken by the Turks. 

Solyman the Magnificent takes Belgrade^ 

1i Pope Clement VII. 

Sweden and Denmark embrace tlie Protest 
ant faith. 

Battle of Pavia, in which Francis I. is taken 
prisoner by Charles V. 

Treaty of Madrid between Charles V. and 
Francis 1. when the latter is set at liberty. 

Rome taken and plundered by Charles V 

I'izarro and Dalmagro invade the empire of 
Peru. 

Revolution of Genoa by Andrea Doria. 

Gustavus Ericson crowned King of Sweden 

Diet of Spires against the Huguenots, then 
fiist termed Protestants. 

Peace of Chanibray. August 5. 

The league of SmalcalU betv/een the Pro- 
testants, 



1518 
1519 



1520 



1521 



15-22 



1523 



1524 



152^ 



1526 



1527 



1528 



1529 



1530 



lUusttiuus Persons. 



1504 P. Beroaldu3,//j>^ 

ob. 
1406 Ciesar Borgia, ob. 

1509 Phil, de Comines, 

Hist. ob. 



1512 Gaston deFoix,oi. 
Rob. Fabian, IJ/st cb. 

1513 Aldus Manutius, 
ob. 

Fabian, JUaUjl. 



Coel. Rhodigin, Gram 

1516 Bap. Mantuanus, 
Poet, ob. 

Card. Xiraenes, ob. 



Card. AdriJUJj ofe, 



1520 Raphael Urb, 

Painter, ob. 
— H. Boecc, Hist. ob. 
— Hen. Stephen, en 

J*r. ob. 
— Leon, da Vinci, 

J'ainter, ob. 

1522 Gawin Douglas, 
Poet, ob. 

1523 Alex. Ah. Alex.oi 
— P. Melanethon, ob. 

1524 T. Li nacre, Jiled 
ob. 

1525 Jo. Pietor, T/ieol 



1527 Con. deBourb.oA. 
— J. Froben, I'r. ob. 

1528 A. Durer, Puivt. 
ob. 

1529 MachJavel, Hist 
ob. 

1530B.Doi)atus,Cr.o^ 



422 



CIIROKOI.OGICAL TABLE, 



A. D. 

1 iJ'J 



15.34 

1535 
153S 

154U 

!54-2 



15-W 



154 



15 if. 



Micliiiel Servelub buriil fnr lici v'sy al Geneva 

riie treiUy of N tirembtr^, .\ii;^usl 'J. 

The Court of Session in Sicoiluiid newinodcK 

led by .laiiifs V. 
The Keforrnation lakes place in England. 
Ti l*oi.e ViH\ III. 

naibiirossa seizes tbe kin_c;dom ol Tunis. 
Jack of Leyiieii heads ihe Anabaptists at 

Munster. 
rhe society of tlie Jesuits instiluteu by Ig- 

n:<liii3 Loyola. 
ExpcditioH of Cliarlcs V. against Tunis. 
TiC'iy ol Nice between Charles N. and Fran- 

eis I. 
The IJible in V'nglish appointed to be read 

in the Clmrohes of England. 
Dissolution of tfie monasteries in England h\ 

Heniy VIII. 
Defeat of the Scots at Solway moss. 
Mart Queen of Scotland. 
VUc Frcjfcch (lefejt the troopa of Cliarles V 

in the baille of Cei izolcs. The treaty of 

(jrepi. 
The (Jouncd of Trent begins, whiclj continued 

eighteen yeai s. 
The Scots defi-at tlie En^tiah at AncrnmMiiir 
\ Cardinal licuton, Archbishop of St. Andrew's, 

assas.'^niHted. 
5 i7 Pi'-sco's conipirncT nt Gonoa. 

The battle of .\!ulberp in \\4iieh the Protest- 

ants arc defeated, and t!»e Elector of Sa.xo- 

ny t:(ken prisoner. 

IsjHOltiari) ^'l. King of England. 

[frnrii II. King of Fi anre. 

'Uattle of Pinkey in Scotland, where the Scots 

I are defeated by the Englin'., December 16. 
1548 The Interim granted by Charles V. to the 

Protestants. 
1550 '' Pope Julius TIT. 
1552 The treaty of l»asvtu hclwcen Cliarles V. .-ind 

lite KJeclor of Saxtmy, for the establish 

ment of LiitheraMism. 
iXl.iril Queen uf England. 
L.ady jnne Crey beheaded. 



\5SP> 



155 



<; Pope Marcellus II. 
*i Pope Paul n . 

Many Hishojis bnrMt in Enpland by Mary. 
1556 Fr.UMiN vNn I. Kniperor of Germany. 
I*liilip 11. Ivmg <)♦■ Si)ain. 



1557' Philip 11. defeats the Trench al St. Quintin. 
15SSi('»'>ais taken by the French from the English. 

•^I'j^.bft^ Qiiecn of England. 

The French defeated in the battle of Grave 
lines. 

Mirv Qnecn of Scots married to the Dauphin 

*" Pope Pius IV. 

Francis II. King of France. 

Treaty of Cattcau Cambres's. 

^Chivks IX. King of Frmice. 



1559 



, :60O 



llluitrioui fertons . \ 

— A. Alciat J'o»tf ub. 
— Saiinazarius,y'oef,o/'>. 
1531 Zuinglius, ob. 

— 0«colanJi)adius, oh. 

1533 Lud.Arioslo,y-'(/e'/. 
oh. 

1534 Corn. Agripp. o'u 
l.i35 Sir Th. Nloie, ob. 
M. Accuraius, J^/ul.Jf. 
153b Erasmus, ob. 
1540 Hu'l -us, Ictus, ob. 
— .EubauUB Ilessus,/^© 

ob. 

— Giiiccardlni, Hist.ob. 
Jo. Major Hut. ob. 
Jo. liale, Ihog. /.. 
1 54 1 ParaceUus, l^hii.ob. 
l54JAIb, Pjj,Lius,.V/.;r/i, 
oh. 

154 i. L. liaif, I'oet, ob. 
—CI. Mai-ot, /%er, cb. 

— 0\. Magnus, Hist. ob. 

1545 lUIIai, /'o(t,ob. 

1546 P. Jovius, lliat.ob 
—Ed Hall, Hist. ob. 

— Mart. Luther ob. 
\s\,l Lud \ ives, oh. 
— (.'-aid. Hembo, ob. 
— Ptutinger, Geog. ob. 
— \'alnbl(is, Grain, ob. 

Card. Sadolctus, ob. 



1550Tr'n«?no, Pr.et^oh 
— ^l.-.dan, //;;.7. ob. 
I '>5I J. Leland, .Int.ob. 
Mart. Hiicer, cb. 
1553 Fr. Iial)elais, ob. 
— J. Duhravius, Hitt.ob 
— Fracastorius,/-'oe/,&6 
1555 Pf)lyd Virpil, ob. 
— .\15ricola, ^^Jecl. ob. 
• 55G Igii Loyola, ob. 
— Pet. .Aretin, cb. 

1557 Sir Jo. Cheke, ob 

1558 J. P. Vaterianus, 
Pofty ob. 

— J. C. Scaliger, ob. 
— Aldrovaudus, ob. 

155QR.StepheD,7'rtn^ 
ob. 



CHROXOLOGICAL TABLE. 



423 



1 501 
loG4 



15GG 






1567 



I5G8 



ISG'J 



15 Go Conspiracy of Air.Lojse, tornjccl bv the part\ 
of Coiide against that of Guise.— i3egimun"g 
of the civil wars in F/-ance. 

Tlie Reformat on corai Ictcil in Scolland bv 

.lijhii Knox. 
The Papn! authority abolished by Parliament 

in Scothtnd. 
Mary (jueen of Scots arrives in Scotland from 
France. 

Uallle of Dreux.—Victory of the Guises over 

Conde. 
-Maximiliax II. Emperor of Germany. 
Siege of Malta by the Turks, who are defeat- 
ed. 
*!: Pope Pius VI. 

Revolt of the Netherlands from Philip II. 
Murder of David Rizzio in Scolland. 
«=>SeIim II. Emperor of the Turks. 
The Duke of Alva sent by Philip to the Ne- 
therlands. 
King Henry Darnley murdered, February G». 
James VI. King of Scolland. 
Mary Queen of Scots flies iuto England for 

Protection. 
Philip II. exterminates the Moors from Spain. 
Puts to death his son Don Carlos. 
The Eail of Murray, Regent of Scotland, as- 
sassinated by Hamilton. 
The battles of Jarnac and Moncontour in 
France, in which the Protestants .-^re de 
fcatcil. 
Naval victory al Lepanto, wliere tlic Turks 

are defeated by Don John of Austria. 
*', Pope Gregory XI II. 

The massacre nlSt. Uarlholomew, August 24 
Flaji-lem taken by the Spaniards. 
Ifenry III. Kiirg of Fiance. 
Socinius propagates his opinions. 
Don Sebastian King of Poi tugal invade3.\trica. 
Mem'irai)le siege of Lcyden, raised by the 
Pi incc of Orange, and the Admiral Bois- 
sol. 

fc?Amurath III. Emperor of the Turks, 

Rouoi.pHUS II. Emperor of Germany. 

The league in France formed against the 

Protestants. 
The Spaniards under Don .lolin of Austria 

defeated in the batC.e of Rir.)eriaiit. 
Commencement of the i-epnMic of Holland 

by the uninn of Utrecht — Mieslrichl taken 

bv the Si)aiiiai*ds. 
Battle of Alcagar, the Portuguese under Doi 

Sebaslion defeated by Muley Moluck. 
Pliiiip II. takes possession of I'orlugal. 
The world circiimnavigatetl by Sir Francis 

Drake. 
T!)f^ Raid of Ruthven in SroUand. — James 

\l. seized by the Earl of Cowrie. 
The New Style introdaccd into Italy by Pope 



Illiistrious Pfrstnt. 



1571 



15-2 



15 

1570 



1578 

1 5ry 



loGOMich.del'IIospital 
Chan./. 



1503 Seb. Castalio, ob. 
— Roger .\scham, ob. 
1 504,1 aCalvin,7yieo/.o^. 
— JMichacJ Angelo, 
J*ai7iler, ob. 

1 505 Con.Gesner, Phil, 
ob. 

— Adrian Turnebus,o£. 

1 56G flier, Vid«,Po.o^r. 

— Han. Caro. Poet, ob. 
Castlevetro, Crit. ob. 

1507 Anne de Mont- 
morency, Const, of 
Franccy ob. 



1 509 Bern. Tasso, Po. 



1580 



158: 



157'2 John Knox. ob. 

— Adm. Coligni, ob. 

— H. Cardan, ob. 

— Peter RaiiMis, ob. 
1574 Paul Manutius.o^ 



1576 Titian VeccHi, 

Painter^ oh. 
P. And. Matheolus, 

Med.f. J 

1 579 Camoens, Poet^ob 



1580 Pnlladlo, Jlrch.f. 
15SI Ja. Chrichton, 

Jidm. ob. 
— Osoi'ius. ob. 
158J G Buciianan, ob. 



42\ 



c nnoxoi-OfiiCAL table. 



A I) 



1584 



(ircgoiy Xlll. llic 3th oJ October \n:\u^\ 

couiitecl the 1 Jlli. 
William I. Prince of Orange murdered at 

Deitt 
Virginia discovered by Sir Walter Rawleigh. 
Einbassv from four kings of Japan to Phi 

lip ii: 

1585 <; Pope Sixtus V. 

— ' — |Scliali Abbas the Great King of Persia. 

l5»?jMary Queen of Scots beheaded at Folher 

I ""gay- 
l588|l)cstruction of llie Spanish Arraada by the 

I Knglish. 

L'JSD IIliiij III. of France raunlerc<l by Jacques 
I Clement. 

\//e7ry IV. f the Great ) A'iVi^' of France. 

l59UThe battle of Ivry, uLich ruins the L.es 
in Prance. 
i: Pope Urban VI f. 
^ Pope (irej^nry XI\'. 
Ij'Jl|riic L'nivorsily of Dublin erected. 
^ Pope Iruioccnl IX. 

Presbyterian church goveriunent established 
in Scotland. 

-\^\ Pone Clenicnt Vlll. 

1594 'i'hc nank of Kngland incorporated. 

«^ Mahomet III. Emperor ol ilie Turks 

{'adiz taken by the F.nelikh. 

Edict of Xantes, tolerating the Protestants in 

France- 
Peace of N'erviiis concluded between France 

and Sp;iin. 
I'hilip III. Kinr; of Spain, 
'ryronc's'reocllion in Ireland. 



lilustriiut l'erj9n$. \ 



.eague 



159-2 



1590 
I59*< 



too. I 



1585 Bodinus, oi. 
— Car. Sigonius, o6, 
— Itonsard, Poet,9b. 
15SG Sir Ph. Sydney,©*. 
l5S^ Paul S eroncsc, 

/'oi titer, oh. 
M. Frobisher, J^av.f. 



l590j.Cujas, Sotus,ob 
— Dii Uartas, jPoe/, ob. 



1591 Pancirollus, ob. 
IJ. I{rissonius,/c/:/s, ob. 
IS'iJ .M. .M(julagne, ob 



1.195 Acidalius. Crit.ob 
— 'rorij. Tasso, /•'o. ob. 
159G A hi. Manutius, 

jun. ob. 
Sir Hen. Drake, ob. 

1597 Jan. Donsa.jnn.c* 

1598 Ilcn. Stephens, 
jun. ob. 

— E. Spencer, P»ei, ob 
II. Hooker, 1) D. ob. 



It iowrie's conspiracy in Scotland. 
; rhe Etrl of Essex belieadrd. 

iTiie Englisli East-India Conipanv establish* 

fd. 

lf,02!'^iiC"r>5>l Arithmetic invenletl at Rruge*. 
lGO.)|jAmCC I. (VI. of Scotland) King of Great 
Hritain. 

'Uninn of tl»c Crowns of England and .''' 

lan.l. 
^ Achmct I. Emperor of the Turks. 
irH)5i^^<^ (iuupo^tler-plot discovered. 

{11 Pope Paul V. 

iGOSi^'S'"'*^''^ (li'.covers the Satellites of Jupiter. 
VnniTiiHB propagates his opiaions. 
Henry IV. of France murdered l)y KavaiU 

lac. 
Li'xvln XUL K'itiir of France. 

The MooiS expelicd from Spain by Philip 

III. 

llludson's I^.ay discovere<l. 

If,!' I"*>aronct8 rir:it createil iu En;;land by James T 
Mai ruiAS Etn|)eroi- of liermany. 
Logarithtns invented by Napier of Mercbis- 
ton. 



1601 Tvcho 
PhiL ob. 



Brachc, 



IGIO 



IGl-' 
1614 



i laniisDousa.sen.o* 
. ler, J'Inl.Jl. 

Masenius, Po. /?. 
John Stow, v?n?. oh. 
Galileo, I'hil.jl. 
rheo<lorc Ueza, ob. 
IGori Justus Lipsius, ob 
iGorCsrd. naroi)ius,o6 
1GU9 Jo?. Scaliger, ob. 
— An.Caracci /Mi>j/. ob 
lOlO IJoecalini. y/. 
1GI4 Is. Casaubon, ob 
IG15 Et. Pasriuler, ob. 



IGIG W.Shakspearc,oi. 
iGir Napier of Mtr- 
chiston, ob. 



CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. 



-i. D. 



161G 



1617 
1018 
1019 



•1620 



t 



JUnstriuiit Pertuns 



W12 
16'.>.J 



16'2: 



Setlleuteiit ot' > iigiiiia by bir Walter Uaw 
leigli. 

^ Mustap!»a Emperor of the Turks. 

The Synod of Durt in Holland. 

Discovery uf ttic ciiculaiion of the blood by 
Yiw ilarvey. 

Fr.KjHJfAND II. Emperor of Germany. 

Vani;ii burnt at Thoulonse for atheism. 

The battle of Prague, by which the Klectoi 
Palatine loses his Erlcciorate. 

The English make a settlement at Madras. 

N"avarre united to France. 

•5=f Oihman II. Emperor of the Turks. 
^'^-'jPliilip IV. ivin_^ of Spain. 
~~~ J4ala\ ia built and settled by the Dutch. 

*[ Pope Gregory XV. 

^ Amuraih !\'. Emperor of the Turks. 

'1 Pope Urban VHI. 

Institution of tlie Knights of Nova Scotia by 
James I. 

Sh^XiZi I- Kinn; of Great IJr'.tai-i. 
The island of liarbadoes planted ; — the first 
I English Settlement in tlic \\'cst Indies. 
— — Kniglits Baronets first created in Scotland. 
ICiiUjLeigue of the Protestant Princes ngainst tlie 

I Emperor. 
I63'2r,nstavns Adolphus killed in tlie battle of 

j ijUtzen. 
~ — iChristina Queen of Sweden. 
lo.)5ri*iie French Acatlemy instituted. 
lo.irJFKUDiXAXP in. Emperor of Germany. 
l'"''^,lJagdat taken by tlie Tiirks. 
-^— f The Solemn Leagne and Covenant establish- 

j ed in Scotland. 
•G^iJohn Duke of Uraganza recovers the king- 
it am of PortuRal. 
Thr^ Irish Uebellion, ai\d Massacre of the 

Protestants, October '2J. 
^Ibrahim lomperor of the Turks. 
The Earl of Stratford beheaded. ^ 
''t-i.i|liegimiine^ of the Civil W'ar in England. — The 

I b:\lile ol Ed(;ehill, October -;i. 
' '>\o^ljCiois XI l'. Kin^ (tf France. 

\nne of Austria Regent of France 



lOtl 



t6l7DeThdh, ///s/. ob. 
— Aquillon, Math. ob. 
1018 Card. Perron, ob. 
—Sir Walter Itawleigh,: 

ob. 
Mig. Cervantes, cb. 
N'ossius, Crit, fl. 
Meursius, Crit.jl. 



l6-lCard.T{dlarmin,o64 



16'23 Mill. Camden, 

J list. ob. 
— Paul Sarpi, oh. 
1 624 MarianDa,///«^ ob. 



1027 Jan. Gruterus, o4 
ItV28 .Malherbe, yo. o6. 
Gu . llhent, Paint. Jl. 
Iluben'', Paint. Jl. 
Bacon Ld. A'erulam. ob. 
Fam. Strada, Uist.fl. 
10 :() Kepler, ob. 
10 Jl II. C. Davil.n, Ifist 
ob. * 

lf..32T.Allan,JIfflr//. oi. 

Iti35 Lope de N'ega, 
Poet, ob. 

\le.v.''Tassonl, Po. ob. 

lOU Ben Jolmsoa, ob. 

inio .\chelini, Po. ob. 

— Ph.Massinger,/*o. oA. 

iPjtl Max. Duke of Sol- 
ly, ob 



v. Vandyke, ob. 

|\rchbishop Laud impeaclied by the Com-| — W. Spelman, o/j 

I mons, trie<I and beheaded. 
.ijiij^ Pope Innocent X. 

lievolution in China by the Tartars. 

I Oi^jCharles I. defeated in the battle of Naseby. 
jlGAOiSir Robert Spottiswoode, President (.f t!»e 

Session, beheaded, '2')th January. 
1048 The peace of Westphalia. — The civil M'ar 

the Fronde at Paris. 
'''i'j'Charles I. of Englami beheaded. 

jThe CumntonwcHlili of England begins. 

j I ^ Mahomet IV. Emperor of the Turks. 
jiGSOj'piie Maniuis of Montrose put to deallj. 
— — Battle of Dunbar.— Covcnauters defeated by 
' Cram well. 



37 



1042 Galileo, PhiL ob 
— :Canl. Richelieu, ob. 
164.3 Jo*'lIamp<len, ob. 
1 644BentI voglio,// j^>6. 
Rob. Baker,' /7/5/. ob. 
— Chillingworlb, ob. 
— Van Ilelmont, ob, 
I6i5 II. Gi-otius, ob. 
10+7 Qurvcdo, Po. ob. 
1648 Voiturc, ob. 

1049 AV. Drummond, 

Pc: and Hist, ob, 
lOiO F.Slradii, ob. 
l050Jo.Ger.Vosjiu3,oi 



A-b 



( llKu.MjLO'ji'. .\l. i A1-.I.P.. 



■ A.n 
[l6.il 
1165J 



i//,. 



riie baltle Ot' W orctsur \»«»u l»v (Jntliiweli. 






1 60* J 



tni;;o .Touts, .frc/i. ob. 
IG5J S.ilaiuksius, ub. 
IC.")V Halzuc, o/'. 



iGj J fiyssttnti, P/iiicb. 
— Aiclilip. I slier, ob. 
— 1) «ii. 1 IciiiiiiiiS I*tt.ob. 
1650 Nic. I'uuasiii, 

J'uinl. oh. 
1057 U . liaivcv, ob. 
— Adiii. lUaku, ob. 
lC58Casp. llur(hiu8,o& 
Sc;tiTuit, J'orl, oli. 



IC()0 II. iiuiiiniuiid, •b. 

iCtil CmhI. Ma/.Arin,o/». 
— l><ui. U Uc IImio.o^. 
Fcrumt, JMuln. //. 



The tirsl var bclv.LLii lUe Liijjlibh aittl 

Dutch. 
UavV. or -Milk Montlay, 30lh March. 
165J Ihc Dutch Ihfl tlclcalcd by Monk, T^O ships 
taken, ami Nan 'l'r»jii»p killc<l, .lulv :ji)lh 
l654JEr«l <>r iIk- (Jon»iintii»»caUh «il Kiiijl.unl. — 
I 0;ivcr Uroiitweli l.oni l'iot«itor. 

^1 I'he Knj;lish iiii<!er Atliuirul t'cim, t.ikc l»o 

beieioik (*t JaiiiUica. 

'Chri&tinaQutcn ol bwcdcii leiiiJiw ll»cCro»i» 

I to ChaileS X. 
lf,35 f l'«ipc .\lcxauiler "N 11. 
jO.)S J^'"»i^'«l»> «lcli\ertJ to ihf Kii^,ri»h, 

'l,K(j|'OLU I. Kiiipvrur ol' (»cr«»aiiy. 

Uichanl Ciuiuutll Lunl I'loiccior of Eng 

lamh 
IC5'J I '»«-• peace of ilic ISrcnees htlwccu iVaiici- 
I imkI Spain. 

'>Cl).M'liy J I- ^^">*4 "' ^^ri-'^l l>»iuiii. — Kc- Spiiitisa, /V«i 
Moralioii ♦»t' Monarchy. |';«sc:il,o6 

'The peace «»f Oliva htlweeii Swetlen, Dcli> 

I mark, unU lN»laM»J. , , ^. 

iGOlThe M;UM"»' "' -^'•S:^'^ bd.ea<Icd lor 1 lea- 

j SOI), '-7lh May. 
iCfjdTln: U..\al Stioirly insliiiitcMl in V.i.gland. 

jDm.kiik hiM l»ack lo the l-ieuch. 

|063<""»'^''''"» ph«nle«L 

. [TI.c KrcncI* Acadciiiy ol Inscni'Uons inili- 

I tule«!. 
UVVil The sfc-iiicl Dnich \»v.r hegms. 
I005|t'litirle^ II. K.n.4 "I" i5l>n«"- 

|(fri:it plH;;ue in Loinlun. 

1600 <'«eul lire in l^nHlnn. 

I l,c Academy or8cicnoetiii»iit«i»''d •" l' 'i"'*' 

'SahMtei Levi, ill Tuike>, pielci..l» ir. be lii« 

I Messiah. 
'The Scot* ^ovcnanlers iltrcalctl on 1 ciil- 

I'lilish, lVniiV^»"i:S N>w\ork, amlSa.i.. Kocb^t t. w. 
! I New .Ursiy. 

-, ,<: Pope Clemi \A 1 X. 

I'ho SpunibU NeU»eriai.«l» tuvail-d 

! I is XIV. p 

ll-.r.s, riie pence nf .■\ix.l:iJChapelle 

jir.r4jl'riie ibJaml of CaiMlia luktii 

De Witls put lo death in llt-l.and. 
u Soliitrskt \\n\v. of Poland. 
,'o;h- Innocent XI. 
M.llna planted by the F.nj;rish. 
1,.:^ 1 I.e |)e:*v.e of N«n»eK"en, .luly .?1. 

II, c- Habeas Corpus Ad passeil 

. 1 laud. 
l07'.'The Long rajliamcut ol 



hv 



Lew. iCOOSir Jolin DeiihaiB, 
I I*ott. uh. 

' 11)71 .Mot. \v Vayer/zA. 
bv the Turks. I— r.roi.ovnts, JlnU ob. 
— Molier, J''nrl, ol'. 



Iio; 



l(»7i .'' I'M Milton, ob 
_1 ». 

Y.i\. i •iwlon, ob 

107S 'i iirenne. o^. 
11170 !)<• l\U)ter, oh. 

\i Eng-V— "^'i' •'^'•''' J*»'*'. *'^' 
** 'lOrS Spiiiosa. oi/. 
Charles II. dis.;i07yTh. lIoM..s,ofr. 

! — D. de lloe!ieloucaidi, 

Thi'^Scou Covenaniert ilefeated at Both-j ob. 
1 XI, -11 Hr'idge Lv die DA 



:c or Moniiiuui!i;-<>''»w>- '^« ^f ^» ''i' 
J— Mezcrav, Hu:. oo. 



CHRONOLOCrCAL TABLE. 



4*21 



lllf.stiToui Prr^ «/ v . 



lf)S5 



irth-ijPeter llie (.irc-at Czhi- ut Aiiiscow. 
lGS.3!Kxec<nioii df Lord liiiisel, 'Jlst July. 

Flxecmion of Algernon Sidney, TlL Decem- 
bei-. 

The siege of ^'icnI.:l ly the Turks, rniseil 
by Jolin Sol/ieski. 

31ilIttJ3 II. King of Cireat 13:itai!i. 

Kevocution ot' the edict ol" NMUles bv Lew- 
is Xl\ . 

Duke ofMonmouil* iK-hea'kd. 

The Xewionian philosophy first published in 
EngJHod. 

The league of Aiigsburgh aj;:jnst France. 

'sr^Solimun III. Kmi)erof of tbe'l'urks. 



16SC 



1GS7 
1088 



loSO V. iJurloljK, Uyf. 1 
— ^ani. Hutler, oh. \ 

— .Mm(!. Hourii^non, o6.j 
— .\liiau. Kirtiier, oO. 
I6S1 Monleuculi, oh. \ 
Sir. J..M;ti"sliam, Chron. 

lf)8'2 Sir T. Brown, 

Phijs. o'.: 
1083 J, H. Colbert, o'. 
lOS+ Pet. Corncilie, ol 
l686Malnibourgh,//;5r 

O''. 



mmum »u<\ lU^rn Kins and Queeu of-^^^;^^^^;'^ 

(Ircal Mntani. ..,.,,,, I— W. Cud wonh' o6. 
L|..scf.pacy abolibhcd m^scotJund by King;_]) ,,, (),.n,o„,|^ ^^r,^ 



IG'JfJ 
lO'Jl 

16'J2 



1C9:. 



I'Vj 



I fO'J 



devolution in Britain.— Kin- James abdicatesi?>!'.'\rV'»7.''^,r^' '//'**'!' I 

^ |H;S. Ld.Waller, /^o. o//.' 



the throne, December i. 



— Jiapin, J'oft, ob. 



1 7t> » 



170-2 



1 7tKi 



170+ 



\\ il.iHin. 
IJattle of (iilllcrankic. — ^The King's troopsde 

featcii — The \'i8c<)unt of Dundee slain ; 

July 10, (). S. 
II I'o'pe Alexander \'J1L 
llatUe of the li.ync. July I. 
'I Topj; Innoten't Xll. 
"^ Ailimct II. Emperor of tlie Turk?. 
HattleofLa Hoe^tic, .May I'J. 
The Massacre uf lilencoe In Scotland, Jan 

.11, O. S. 
battle of J^teenklik. — King M''illiam defeated 

by Luxendjurfrh, July '2* 
Hwnover maile the lunih Eleclornte of the 

Empire. 
\amtir taken by King NVil'.iara. June 25. 
■^ Mnstapha IL Emperor of the Turks. 
Peace of Itynwick concluded, Seplendier H. 
Peter the (-rciit gains a signal victory over 

the TurUn, and Inkcs A soph, 
niixries XII. King of Sweden. 
Peace of Carlovitz eonchidi-fl, .fanuan-- io. 
I'heScoU attempt a Colony at Daren. 

Charles XII. begins his first campaign, takes 

Copenhagen. 
Phibp V^. king r,f Spain. 
% Pope ('lement XI. 
Death of James II. at St. Germain'?. 
iJnnSQ ueen of Gronl Britain. — War against 

France and Spain, 
The Eiiglisfi and Dutch dctroy the Frcnc! 

fleet :a Vigo. 
The Ki eneh send (J<tlonjc.<» to Mie Missi^Dipni 
Gibralfar taken by .^dmiral Kcxike, July '24. 

t:^ Achmet III. Emperor of the Turks. 
IJatlle of Blenheim. — The French dr.fc.ilrd 

by Marlborough ku<l !''i:n*r |-'»!Trn'\ .X"- 

gust '2. 



C. le Bnjii, HainU ob. 
(I, Mena;^e, ob. 
irV.n |{. Boyle, P/wV. 0* 
— Sir G. Mackenzie, ob 
— Nic. Ueinsius, ob. 



ir.ei S. PiuTcndorf, ob 
Iluygens, l-'hil. ob, 
109'> La Fontaine, ob. 
— Dr. Husbv, ob. 
If)*.' 6 La J i my ere, ob. 
iiacirie, vb. 



\(0V Fip Millingflei 1,9// 
SirWiliiaruTeinpIe, ob. 



1701 John IVyden, ob. 
E. of SundeHand, ob. 



170.3 .1. G. GrM\ius, oL 
S(. Evrrnr.nndj^-'otff, oi 
Dr. J. Wtdlis, oh. 
170 » J< bn l/>fke, ob. 



ITt 



42; 



CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. 



AJJ. 

iTOi Peter the Great tbimdsSt. i'eteisburgh. 
1705 liic Euglisli take Barcelona. 

JosiiPii I, Emperor of Gt-rmany. 

iroS^Jft'^^'t: of [Ismilies. — The French defeated b} 
i the Duke of Mariliorodgh, May 1'2. 

The treaty of Union betuten England and 

Scotland, signed July 22. 



1707iT^ be battle of Almanza. — The Frencli and 
Sjianiards, under the Duke of Berwick, 
defeat ilic Allies, April 14, 
1708' Battle of Oudenurde— The French defeated 
I by Marlborough and Eugene, June SO. 

Minorca taken by General Stanhope, Septem- 

i her 18. 

inogJBattle of Pulto^a.— Charles XII. defeated by 

I I Czar I'eter, June 30. 

Battle of Vialplaquet. — The French defeated 
by Mar]horouf;li and Eugene, Septemberll 
Chaiilks VI. Emperor of Gernuiny. 
The peace of Utrecht, signed March ;30. 
'i^forgS I. Elector of Hanover, King ol 

Great Britain. 
Lervis XV. King of France. 
The Rebellion in Scotland. — Baltic of She 
rifFmuir, November 13, 



1705 Jo. Ray, Mtt. oh. 

1706 Bossuet, Bp. ob. 
— ^.Tohn Evelvn, olt. 
—P. Bayle, ob. 

Ch. E. of Dorset, ob. 

1707 M. Vauban, oO. 
Geo. Farquhar, jPo. ob 



1711 

'.17I.3 

1714 

1715 



171f. 
1718 
1720 



Prince Eugene defeats the Turks at Peterwa- 

radin. 
Charles XII. of Sweden killed at the siege of 

Frederickshall 
The Mississipi Scheme in France projected 

by John Law, breaks up '2Si\ May, 
In the same year the South Sea Sclieme 
breaks iiji in Enjiland, September 
11721 ^ Pope Innocent XIII. 
! 1724111 Pope Benedict XllT. 
ii725|Deaih of Peter the Great Czar of Muscovy. 
I I • — Catharine Empress. 
1 1726 Great Earthquake at Palermo, August 21, 
jl727j«j3tOrg^ II. Kingof Great Britain. 
— — Treaty of Copenhagen between Great Bri- 
j tain and Denmark. 

, iThe Spaniards besiege Gibraltar, May 20, 

jl728jl'rca(y between Great Britain and Holland, 
May 27. 



i ! 

i 



The Concress of Soissons, June 14. 



l729Treaty of Seville between Great Britain, 

j France, and Spain, November 9. 
1730^ Pope Clement XII. 

Cbristiafi YI. Kingof Denmark. 

Tho Persians under Kouli-Khan defeat the 

Turks. 
« Mahomet V. Emperor of the Turks. 
1 1731 Treaty between Great Britain, the Emperor, 
and King of Spain, July 22. 
33{Tb.e Jesuits expelled from Paraguay, January 
Frederick III. King of Poland. 
h734ComTaercal Treaty between Great Britain 
and Russia, December 2. 



lUustrtou? Persons- 



1711 N.'Bollcau, f)b. 

1712 Cassiiii, I'hil. ob 
Ash. Cooper Earl of 

Shaftesbury, cb. 
1715 Fenelon, ^bp. ob. 
— Bp. Burnet, ob. 

M-Ahranche, Phil. ob. 
Leibnitz, Phil. ob. 

l71SMad. Dacier, ob. 

1 71 9 M. Maintennn,o6. 
— Jos. Addison, ob. 

— Flamstead. ob. 

1720 Ileinsius, Grand 
Pemionari/, ob. 

1721 Mat. Prior, ob. 
— Iluet, ob. 

1722 Dacier, ob. 

— C. Fleurv, J/ist. ob. 
1723SirChV. Wren, o6. 
— H. Pridcaux, ob. 
— Basnage. JI:st. ob. 
l724W.'WolIaston, o^-. 
1725 Kneller, ob. 
Sir Isaac Newton, ob. 

1 7-29 Dr. S. Clarke, ob. 
— Sir Rich, Steele, ob. 
— W. Congreve,/-'o. ob. 
—John Law, Mississip 

pi, ob. 
1 730L.Eachard,/y?sZ. ob 
17 Si Dr,Atterbury,i?/;. 

of Rochester^ ob. 

1731 Dan. Defoe, ob. 

1732 Jo. Gay, Poet, ob. 

1733 Corelli. Jlhis.ob. 
l734Dr.J.Arbuthnot,n£i 
— ^Duke of Berwick, ob. 



iJHRONCLOGfCAL TABO;. 



■i2f 



A. D. 
17)5 
I76fj 



1737 



1739 



1740 



1741 



174-2 



174,5 



I'he French defeat the Impenalisls in Italy. 
Peace between Syaln and Austria. 
Souli-Khan (Nadir Schah) proclaimed King 

of L*ersia, September '29. 
War declared between the Erapei'or and the 

Turks, July 2. 
l7.38iThe Russjans invade the Crimea. 

Nadir Scliah coMijuers the greatest part of 

the Niogal Eujjjire. 
Treaty between Great Britain and Dennaark. 
Peace between tiie Emperor and the Turks, 

August 21. 
Peace between Russia and the Turks, No- 
vember. 
Portobelio taken by Admiral Vernon, No- 
vember 21. 
Fi-ederick III. (the Great) King of Prussia. 
^i Pope Benedict XIV. 
War between Poland amf+kmgary. 
War between Hussia and Swedes). 
Carthagena taken by Admiral Vernon, June 

19. 
The Prussians masters of Siiesia, October 20. 
Peace between Austria and Prussia, June II. 
Defensive alliance between Great Britain and 

Prussia, November 18. 
CiiAULts \TI. (of Bavaria) Eraperor ofGer- 

muny. 
Defensive alliance between Great Britain and 

ilussia, February. 
War in Germany between the British, Flun- 

garians, French, and Austrians. 
The French defeated by the Allies at Dettin 

gen, June 6. 
War declared in Great Britain against 

France, March 31. 
The King of Prussia takes Prague. 
Commodore Anson completes his voyage 

round the world. 
1745 FhaxcisI. (o; Lorraine) Emperor of Ger- 
many. 

iQuadruple alliance between Britain, Austria, 

i Holland and Poland, January 8. 

{The allied army defeated by the French at 

Fontenoy, April 30. 

]Loui3l)argh and Cai>e Breton taken by the 

I British troopSj June C. 
— iThe Rebellitm breaks out in Scotland, July. 
Defeat of the King's forces by the Rebels at 

Prestonpans, September 2!. 
Treaty of Dresden between Prussia, Poland, 

Austria, and Saxony, December 25. 
Def'eai of the King's forces by the Rebels at 

Falkirk, January 17. 
Ferdinand VI. King of Spain. 
Frederick V. King of Denmark. 
Count Saxe takes Brussels and Antwerp. 
Victory of Culloden, which puts an end to 

the Rebellion in Scotland, April 16. 
Lords Bal merino and Kilmarnock beheaded, 

August 18, 

37^ 



1744 



1741 



Itlustrivus Persons. 
l735Dr. Wi?. Derham,! 

ol). 
— lip. Tanner, Aiit. ob 
— Vertot, Hist. off. 
173G J. Le Cierc, ob. 
— Ld. Lansdowii, J-'oet, 

ob. 

1737 El is, Rowe, ob. 
— Ld. Chancellor Tal- 

hot, ol>. 

1738 Dr. Boerhaave, ob 

1739 Dr. N. Sanderson, 
Mat/}, ob. 



1740 Eph. Chambers,o6 
— T. Tickeli, /^oet^ ob. 

1741 Pet. Burman, ob. 
— B. Montfaucon, ^diit. 

ob. 

— Gh. Rollin, Hist. ob. 
— R.Sandersan,.4«^. ob 
--Card. PoHgnac, ob. i 

1742 Dr. Bd'm. Hailey, 
Math. ob. 

—Dr. Rich. BeHtIey,oi'^ 
Dr. Boulter, Archbi- 
shop ')f Armaghf ob. 

— L. Theobald, ob. 

1743 Jo. Ozeil, ob. 
— Fr. Peck, Jlnt. ob. 
— Card, de Fleury, ob. 
— J.G.lvej'sler, Ant. ob. 
— Kya. Rigaudj Paiiit. 



ob. 

1744 \l. Pope, Po. ob 
— Roger Gale, ./^JJ/. ob. 

1745 Dr. Jon. Swift, ob. 



1746 Col. Maclaurin, 

^Math, ob. 
— Barratier, Phil. ob. 
— T. Southern. Po. ob. 



4:50 



CHKONOLOGICAL TAULE. 



1747 



A I) I 

1740iCoum Saxe dctculs Uit allies at U:.ucou\, 
Oitobcr II. 

Drea'ltul cai tliquukc at Lin»% October 17. 

Lord Lo\at lulitHded, April*). 

The French dckal tlic allied army at La- 
feldt. Jul) iJ. 

nergcn-t'ji-zoom taken by the French, Sep- 
tember 5. 

The Ficiich Fleet defeitcd by Admiral 
llauke, October 14. 

Kouli-Khan murdered. — Kouluiion in Per 



I ^_ 



J'luiirioui Hrrsont. 



1748 



1749 



1747 narbcTHkc, PoL 

Phii oh. 
— Th. Chubb«», ob. 
—Dr. J. J. Ulllenim, 

Jiot. (,b. 

— M. M attire, od. 

— Abp. r«<Her, oh. 

— K. I l<.|t!8» orih, ('r.ob 

— I'rebidrut ForlHrS, ©/> 



Pc;ice of Aix briiapelle between (ireal Dti IT^SJ. riiom[)S«)U, I'o- 
tiiji, Fr.uice, Spain, Auslrci, Saidiiiia, and et. uf>. 
Holland, October 7. — Dr. Is. Wattn, ob. 

League between the Pope, A'enelkns, kc. — l)i . F.llulthc son, ©A. 
aj;hin8t tliC Algeripes, K.r. —Dr. (.en. C Ln ne, oA. 

750 Joseph King ol Fortupal. | '*•!* ^- '''^' Poel^ rb. 

j Academy o! Scienoeo loonded at SuK-kholm. l74yi".Odell, /irnm o// 

— — iCommercial treaty betuccn (ireal llritaiu, — N. Hreret Ch-unub 
and Sfiain, Octoln-r S. 
'<'|')hu»of HoUtein Kinp f^r v •« ,•.'.•»,. 



|1730 Dr. Conycr* Mid 
dlelon, ob. 



e between Spain aiid 



— .\iid. HaMer, ob. 



.\t* A:}ie intnxtuccd in 1»... , . . plembcr — .Aaron lldl, /'or/ o/> 



2, n ckontti l4. 



JA{K)-t. Znjo, l)rt:m. ob 



l75V'I'|ie nriiikh Museum e«tubri»hed in Mot.ti- 17.M IL Lorti Holing 



gne llouic 

1754 Creat rni{ lion of A'.tna. 

— jCreat cu:th(iuuke at Constnniinople and Ca* 

irn, Scplcnjbcr 2. 

— it^Othr.mn III. Kmpcror of th« Turk<i. 

1755 I)%Tcal of Ciencral LJraddock near Fort du 

Qnesne, Joly n. 

Lisbon dcfcirojcd bv an carUjquake, Xorcro 

f bcr L 

War dcil»red helwcco Cre.'^t niita'in and,l75.'i Uerkeley, lljt. oj 
Frnrif, May IS. C'lo; r,r, ob 

r t»f Minfirin icy, June 28. — Sir Mur.j. Sloane, of>. 

1 .tilcniptB tn a, I.«wi8XV. {1754 Ur.Kich.>!ead, o/'. 

Kitt}; (if Frui/a tJeteais ihv. AuuitaiiS «t — Henry Fit-ldiiij;. oA. 

IteichenI etg :<i.d Prague. — ])t: y^O[^rc. J\/itlh.ob 

f'mint Dauhn repulic* lj»e King uf i'russia at — H. Felham vb 



broke, cb. 
— Dr. A lex.. Monro, sen. 

ob. 
— Dr. Doddridpc, ob. 
175 i Will. Chewrlden, 

..Innt. ob. 
— Will.Whi8ton,,>/rtr/j. 

ob. 
— fsunl. Albt'i-oni, oA 



I75u 



"57 



Kolin, Ji.ne 18. 
Verden and Brecicn takou by ihe French, 

AiiRU>t. 
roiiviiiiion of Cb s'trs«.vcn, September 8. 
! — i — Tlic Prussians t!e:Vat tlie French and Aus- 
j I tr:a<i8 at Itosbatb, November 5. 
— .— I he Kin" (4" I'rns-ua matlur of Silesia, De- 

!| • eeniber 21. 
*=^ Mii!i!*l.lin III. r.mperor of the Tu;ks. 

fl7j8 i: F'pe rien.ent MM. 

Sc epal takfii by the F.n^lish, May 1. 

Cnpe nrcton taken by th«' En-jlisli June 17. 

^ 'I'he r.n;;IIs!i repulsed at 'F^otideroga, Jiil\ 8. 

'. iThe nriti>li trf»o;»8 take Lonisliiirf», July 27, 



— Count DauliL- 
. 1 I'f^hkirk I 

— The IWitibh 1 



the Kin;; of Fru»«ia ai 

r 



14. 



— J. (iibbs, .'Itch. ob. 
1755 .\L de Monies- 

onieil, ob. 
— !)r. I{. Hauruison,o/' 
1 7 30 (iiiberl West, ob 

1757 Colley Cibber, 
Com. ob. 

— l>»nj. Calmet, Bern- 

ilirt, ob. 
— W .Maidnnd, /Hit. of . 
— .M «le Fontenelle, 

f'oet, ob. 
—Dr. Herring, .%'jp. of 

Cotitet bui-11, o'l. 

1758 Ifev. J. Harvey,©' 
i— L. lleiMcr, JInut. o 

n" "Ko. — H. \U)M\Wr,Diiin:.(j> 



CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE- 



431 



Jl. IK 

175S 
175D 



Itiustriout Pertont. 



17C0 



1761 
\70'i 



Uoree lakcn by Kejipel, December i9. 

('.natl:Uoui)e surreiKltred lo theKnglisJi.May lJl759 O. Fr. Handel, 

The Frenclj iLfeated by the allied army &i{ Mus- oh. 
Miiiden, August 1. 

French fleet defeated by Boscawen off Gibral- 
tar, Ati-ust 18. 

(Jliarlts 111 King of Spain. 

The Jesuits expelled from Portugal, Septem- 
ber \ 

General Wolfe takes Quebec, September 17. 

French fleet defeated by Hawke off IJellisle, 

November '20 ' ,,.. .'irCO Count Zinzendorf, 

Montrcul and Canada taken by the Isntish, ^^^ 

trooi>s, Sepl«mber 8. !l7r>l'l)r T.Sherlock,oA. 

<^CorijC 111. King of Great Britain, Octo._ij,8|,f,p i|,,^,jlcy, od. 

ber 25. ' — Sam. Rithai'dson, 

The King of Prussia defeats the Au«5trians at I jWv. oh. 

Torgua, November .3. —Dr. .1. Lcl.ind, ob. 

Pon^'ichcrr) taken by the English,.Tanuaiy 1 5.' — Slepbeii ll^^les, ob. 

Martinico surrendered to the English, Febru- irCJ Dr. Ja. Bradley, 



I76i 



ary 4 
Peter III. Emperor of Russia. 
The Jesuits banished fioni France, August. 
Uavannah taken by the Knglifih, Auj;uil \Z. 
l*cace between Gre:\t Hriiain and France al 

Fontainbleau, Xovember ^n 
Peace between (ireat Hriiain, Fi-ance and 

Spain, at Paris, Februa'V 10. j» 

jCathcrine II. Empress of iJussi.**. 
^7r)i|Stani»lun8 II. King of Poland. 

ISiiiah Dowia defeated by Munro at Bu\ai, 

October CJ, 
— — n\i'>ii*s «rucovcT)C8 in (he Sotiih Seas. 
17' ,1 n. Enspeixir of (Jcrmany. 

K . ic:-.!! stamp act repealed, March 18. 

i he Jesuits expellcil from Bohemia and Deu- 

mark. 
Christian VII. King of Denmark. 
'''»''. The Jesuits expelled from Spain, Genoa, atid 
I Venice. 
— ■ Watlis and Carteret's discoveries in the South 

I Seas, 
'J^ Uovid .\cadcmy of .•\rl3 established at London. 
The, lesuits expelled from Naples, .MA!ta,«nd 

Parma. 
HoMgaiit title's discoveries Id the South Seas 



I76qV P..pe Clement IV 

•■■ ■ C<K)k*!< first discoveries in the South Seas. 
— — Coi-8i<a taken by the French, June Li. 
177n RHiihf|u:«kc at St. Domingo. 

Gusta^us III. King of Swe«1«n. 

Revolution in Sweden, August 19. 

Poland <lismcnibere<l by Uussia, Prussia, and 
Atjstria. 

Cook's second voyage and disrovcriea. 

The society of the .lesultt suppressed by the 
Pope's bull, .Ai!gusf 'J5. 

Lnvii XVL A'ln^- of Frcmce. 

^ Ab.lhol-Achmet Rmperor of the Turks. 

Amcr.can M-ar commenced, N'^'-H.^^'-r !''.. 



1774 



.Istr. ob. 

— (icmmiani, »^fuf. ob. 

— Lady M. Worlley 
Montague, oh. 

I7f).i N.lloi.ke, y//«r. o/. 

— ^V.SIlcn»lone,/^o. of 

ttflH.D^UleyJ'o.oh. 

— Ja.Anderson,y//»f. ob. 
-Ch.Cbui chill, /'o. ol'.\ 
765 Dr. Kd. Young, 

J'oet, t,h. 
-l)i-. Stiikely, ^^^ oh. 

— R. ?imsrin, ,\tiilh. ob. 

— Dji. .M;.llef Puft.ob. 

I70G Dr. r. Birch, /Air. 

0'. 

— Dr.Sam. Chandler, ob' 

—Dr. \\o.\\\\\\.\,Pht,s. 

ob. - ' ^ 



I7t'8 Larir. Sterne, oL. 

— Dr. T. Seeker, ,1''p. 
of Canterhnry^ ph. 

— .Ta. Short, Out o',. 
— AbbeWinkl' 
I7ilg R. Sn.itb,. ' 

1770 AbbtNollet, yV.; 
ob. 

— W. Guthtic, Hit. ol>^ 
— T.Chattertoii, Pu.oh. 

— Dr. .1. Jfii tin, o'-. 

— Dr.Mark.Vkenside.o/'. 
— D .'rnbiasSmolieijW. 

1771 T!i <Hr;iy,/ Off,* . 
177.) Ph. Earl of Ches- 

terfield, oh. 
— G. J.i). Lvulcfrin, o . 
1774 M. <1e lu Cc!i<fa- 

niine, oh. 



■iO^ 



CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE 



1775 
1776 



1777 



1778 



1779 



II780 



Illustrious PciJtons. 



Uattle of Hunker's Ifill in America, June 7. 11774 Zach. Fearce, £p. 
*i\ Vo]ie Pius YI. o/ RochiSieVy ob. 

The Amencans declare their independence! — Hen. Baker, *Vrt/. 



1781 



July 4. 
Mary Queen of Portugal. 
Pliiirtdelphia taken by the British troops, Oc 

tober 3. 
Surrender of General Burgoyne at Saratoga, 

October 7. 
[.eague between the French ^nd Americans, 

Octol)er lO. 
Peace betvieen the Imperialists and Prussians, 

May l.J. 
Great eruption of Vesuvius, August 8. 
.Siege of (iibraltar I>y the Sj)auiards, July 
' aptain Uook killed at Owbyhec. 
Sir G. Roili>cy rl.cfeats the Spanish fleet near 

Cape St Vincent, January, 14. 
Charlept'^iwn surrenders to tbe British, .May 1-2 
Riots in Londoa on account of the Popish bill, 

June '2. 
Lord Cornwallis dcfenfs the Americans at 

Canibden, August lO. 
IWar dcclareil between Great Bi-itain and Hol- 
land, December '20. 
The Americans Uci'eated at Guilford by Lord 

Corn v\ all is. 
-'Surrender of tiit British troops to the A me 



Phil. oh. 

1775 Dr.J.Hawksworih, 

O'K 

— Viv. Jolm Can pbell, 
flist. 0.' . 

1776 Da. VlunwIIisi.oh. 
— Ja.Fergusson, JMutli. 

0' . 

1777 ^. Foote. Vom. oh. 
— W^ Bo\vyer,/*rin. ob. 
— irwier, hhijs. o' . 

1778 Jo. Gregory, M.D. 
oh. 

— Voltaire, o'-. 

— Dr. Linnafus,^^^^ oh. 

J. J. lioUSSfHU, o'\ 

1 779 Dav. Garrick, Com. 
oh. 

— R. of Chatham, o •. 

W. Warburton, lip. 

of Gloucester, oh. 
— Dr. J. Armstrong. 

Poet, o'-'. 

1780 Sir Will. Black- 
stone, o'>. 

■Dv. (iaubius, oh. 



rieans and French ut Yorktown, Oetober IS 
"82, Sir G. Rodney detVals tbe French fleet oh"- Sir Ja. Steu.irt, oJ' 

Doniinica, April I'i. ,1782 T. Newton, ^/a o/ 

Sir Edw. Hughes defeats the French fleet Bristol, o'.\ 

under SuftVein in the East Indies, February — Metastasio, Poel, ob. 



1783 



17. 

Peace between Great Britain, France, and 



-Hen. Home Lord 
Karnes, oh. 



Spain, and the Independence of America— Dr. Will. Hunter, oh. 



1783D'Alembcrl, P/ii7. 
oh 



— Euler, Jfatfi. oh. 



declared, January '20 
'Si Peace betweeii Great Britain and Holland, 
May '24. 

17S5|Treaty of alliance between Austria, France,! 1784 Dr. S. Johnson,©/^, 
and Holl.Ti.d, November 9. I ^^' ^Vhitehead, Poet 

l78GlFredcrlck IV. Kir\g of Prussia. j Lmoeat. ob. 

Commercial treaty between England and 178.5 R. Bnrn,L.L.D.o/'. 
France, SepL<Mnber 26. - j — Rich, (ilover. J'n. oh. 

1787 The Assembly of the Notables convened at!1780 Jonas Hanway. o(^. 
Paris, Februin-y 'IZ. 1"«7 B]>. Lowth, ob. 

Mr. Hastings impeached for misdemeanours — Soame Jenyns, C"'' 
in the government of India, IMay 21 

1788 Prince Charles Edward died at Rome, Janua- 
ry.'^.!. 

The Parliament of Pans remonstrates against 
tlic use of lettres de cachet, March 1 6. 

Defensive alliance between England and Hol- 
land, April 25. 

The Regency bill debated by the house of 
Commons, December 10. 
1780 The abolition of the slave-trade proposed in 
Parliament. 

^Selim III. Emperor of the Turks, April. 

The Assembly of the States-General opened 



— Dr. Edm. Law, lip. 

of Cm lisle f ob. 
— F. Sydenham, oh. 
— Dr. .lo.Rotheram,oA. 

Dr. Abel, ^hi.i. o'.. 

Ld. Pres. Dundas, olh 

Ja. Stuart. F. P.S.06. 

T. Gainsborou;j;h, 

Painter, oh. 
— T. Sheridan, ob. 
— M. Savary. Voy. ob. 
— Count de Buflbn, o'j. 



' CHRONOLOGICAL TAELE. 



'133 



A.D. 



1789 



-Beginuiiig ot" trie French 



1730 



1791 



1792 



at Paris, Alay 5 
JJevolution. 

They form themselves into the National As- 
sembly, June IG. 

The Ba'siile t'akeii, and the Governor massa- 
cred, July 14, 

The Princes of the blood and chief Noblesse 
leave France, July. 

The King of France brought to Paris, accepts 
the Declaration of the Rights of Man, Oc 
tober 6. 

Decree for dividing France into eighty-three 
departments, October 30 

Monastic establishmentssuppressed in France, 
February 13. 

Titles of Nobility suppressed in France, Fe 
bruary 2i. 

War commenced in India vith Tippoo Sultan, 
May 1. 

General confederation at Pails in the Champs 
de Mars, July 14. 

Leopold II. Emperor of Germany. 

The King of France, with his famil.y, cseape 
from Paris,but are intercepted at Varennes, 
June 22. 

Riots at Birmingham, July 14 

The King of France accepts the constitution, 
September 14. 

Francis II. Emperor of Germany. 

Gustavuslll. King of Sweden assassinated by 
Ankerstroom, March 29. 

Gustavus IV. King of Sweden.— -Duke of Su- 
dermania Regent in. his minority. 

An ai'med mob forces the Thuilleries, and in- 
sults the King of France, June 20. 

The Duke of Brunswick, with the combined 
armies of Austria and Prussia, arrives at 
Coblentz, July 3. 

The National Assembly decrees the country 
in danger, July 11. 

Petion and tlie community of Paris demand 
the King^s deposition, August 3. 

The Thuilleries again attacked. — The King 
and Queen of France take refuge in the 
National Assembly. — The SwiSs guards 
massacred by the populace, August 10. 

The Royal authority suspended by the Na- 
tional Assembly, August 10. 

The Royal Family imprisoned in the Temple. 
August 14. 

A dreadful massacre of the state-prisonerSjat 
Paris, September 2, 3. ^ 

^'The National Convention is constituted, the 

King deposed, and Franee declared a Re- 
public, September 21. 

'The Republic decrees fraternity and assist-i 

ance to all nations in the recovery of theii 
liberty, November 19. 
— Savoy incorporated wil^ tlie French Republic, 
November 37. 



lUustrlcHs Persons. 



178'J W.J.Mtckle,i^oe?, 

ob. 



1789 Rev. Jo. Logan, 
Poet, ob. 

— J. Lcdyard, Truv.ob 
— Sir Jo. Hawkins, ob. 
— Marq. de Mirabeau, 

oh. 
— Vernct, Painter, ob 
I— Ld. l^rcs. Miller, ob. 

1790 Dr. Will. CuUen, 
I'hys. .ob. 

— Di. Adam Smith, ob. 
— Di.Benj. Franklin,o<^. 
— John Howard, ob. 

Rev.T.Warton, Poet 

Laxireat, oh. 
— G<,'neral Roy, ob. 

Dr. W. Henay, Mut. 

ob. 

1791 Rev. Rich. Price, 
L. L. D. ob. 
Dr. T. BlacklQck, 
Poet, ob. 

— Rev. Jo. Wesley, oh. 
— Fr, Grose, Jint. oh. 
— Cat. Macaulay, hist. 

ob. 

Prof. Michaelis, ob. 
i7'i'ZDr.'R^)Vu,Miner.Qb. 
— Sir Josh. Reynolds, 

Puiraer, ob. 
-Will. Tytler, ob. 

-Dr. Home, Bishop oj 

I'Voj-w/cA, ob, 
-Ro. Adam, Arch ob. 
— John E. of Bute, ob. 

•Sir Rich. Arkwright. 

ob. 
— Sir Robert Strange, 

Ungravery ob. 
— Lord Hales, ob. 
— John Smeaton,it.>j'r. 

ob. 



431 



CnRONOLOGlCAL T.4SLE. 






1793 



1794 



1795 



179^ 



i'he Convcnlioii decrees liie Trial of Lewis 
XVI. Deceri.ber 2. 

Lewis XV'I. brought to trial, answers each 
article of accusation, December 14. 

Lewis XVI. condemned to dentil by a majori- 
ty of five voices, Jsiuiary 17. 

Lewis XVI. beheaded, January '21. 

The Alien-bi!l passed in the British House of 
Contrrions, January 24. 

Russia declares .war against France, Janua 
ry 31. 

Tiie French Convention declares war against 
England and Holland, February 1. 

Lyons declares for LewisXVH. February 28. 

Decree for the French people rising in a mass, 
August 20, 

Surrender of Toulon to Lord Hood's fleet, 
August 28. 

Marie Antoni.itte Queen of France condemn- 
ed to death by the Convention, and behead- 
ed the same day, October 15. 

Brissnt and the chiefs of the Girondist party 
guillotined. 

Robespierre triumphant, November. 

The English evacuate Toulon, December 19. 

The Princess Elizabeth of France beheaded, 
May 12. 

The Habeas Corpus act suspended, May. 

Lord Howe defeats the 'French fleet off 
Ushant, Jane 1. 

Robespierre, Avith his chief partisans, guil- 
lotined, July 28. 

Battle of Warsaw. — The Polish liberties de- 
stroyed, October 12. 

The Jacobin Club suppressed, October IS. 

Trials of Hardy, Tooke, Thelwall, &c. for 
treason. November. 

The SladthoUler takes refuge in England. — 
Holland overrun by the French, January. 

Mr. Hastings' trial ended by his acquittal, 
Ai>ril 22. 

Lyons bombai-ded, laid in ruins, and all its 
loyal inhabitants massacred, May. 

Lewis XVII. died in i)risoD at Paris, June 8. 

TJie Cape of Good Hope taken by the British 
forces under Sir. J. H. Craig, Gen. Clarke, 
and Sir G. K. Elphinstone, Se])tember 16. 

Helgiiirn incorporated with the French Re- 

1 public, September 30. 

[Great disorders in Ireland, October, Novem- 
ber, December. 

Stanislaus II. resigns the Crown of Poland 
— The kingdom divided between Russia, 
Austria, and Prussia, November 25. 

Ceylon taken by the British under Gen. J. 

j Stewart, and Com. Ranier, Feb. 15. 

jTbe Count d'Artois, with h's suit, take up 

1 their residence at Edinburgh, January C. 

The East India Company votes an indemni- 
fication and reconipeai^e to Mr. Hastings, 

; Jannarv. 



lUutitriou.li Persons. 



1793 Dr. V\'ill. Robert- 
son, Hist. oh. 

•Mrs. Griffitlis, J\'o: 

ob. 

-Will. Earl of Mans 

field, ob. 
— Dr.T.xMudge, Optic 

ob. 
Will. Hudson, F.R.S. 

cb. 
— Ld. Gardenstone, ob. 

•Dr. J.Thomas,/^/>. of 

JlochesteVf ob. 

•D. Serres, Paint, o • 

■Baron de Tott, ob, 

■Rich. Tiekeii, ob. 

■LordRomney,F. R. " 

ob. 
—John Hunter, M. D 

ob. 



l794Edw. Gibbon, ZT/sr 

ob. 
— Earl of Camden, ob. 

■Dr. Woodward, /y/. 

of Cloyne. ob. 
— Dr. Jo. Roebuck, oh. 
— Charles Pigott, ob. 
— Earl Bathursl, oh. 
— Geo. Colman, Drm 

ob. 

—Card, de Bernis, o'j 
— James Bruce, ^\i. 

ob. 
1795 Sir Will. .Tones/v. 
— Rev. Dr. Al. Geravi:, 

ob. 

— .Tames Boswell, ob. 
—Will. Smellie, ob. 



17Q6 Rob. EurnSjPoe/. 

oh. 
■ — Jo. Anderson, F.R.S. 

ob. 
—Rev.Dr. G.Campbell, 

: ob> 



CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. 



43d 



1798 



l"he French overrun and [ituniier lidly. " 
Lwd Malniesbury negociates for peace at Pa 

i-is, October 28. 
Death of Catherine II.— Paul Emperor of 

Russia, November 17. 
Lord Malraesbury quits Paris, December 20. 
;r7yr|A. mutiny of the British licet at Ports- 
I j mouth and the Nore suppressed, May, 
[ June. "^ 

t jTiie Scots Mihiia bill passed, July. 

I ; Negotiations at Lisle for a peace broken 

[ ! O"- 

j 1 The Dutch fleet beaten and captured bv Lord 

Duncan, October 11. ' 4 

The Papal government suppressed by the 
f ^' rench.— The Pope quits Rome, Febru- 
j ary, 26. 

iFreland in open rebellion, May, J. me, &e. 
■j Lord Nelson totally defeats the French fleet 
j m the battle of the Nile, August 1. 
I The Swiss finally defeated, and their inde- 
j pendence abolished, September 19. 
j The French lleet defeated by Sir J. JB. War- 
! ren, October 12. 

j A union with Ireland proposed in the British 
I Parliament, January 22. 
jThe morion rejected by the Commons of Ire- 
j lano, January 24. 

Seringapatam taken by General Han-is and 
Sir David Baird, and Tippoo Sultan killed, 
31 ay 4. 

The French under Bonaparte defeated by 
^ Sir Sydney Smith at Acre, M&v 21 

Expedition of the British troops against Hoi- 
land, August. 

Death of Pope Pius VJ. September. 

The British troops evacuate Hoilaud, Novem- 
ber. 

A revolution at Paris.— Bonaparte declared 
lirst Consul, December 25, 



l_ lliusirjuui I'tr^juns. 



I'UG Hev. Dr. J a. For- 

dvce, ub. 

IJr. Th. lieid, oh. 

— HenryFlood,M.P.oi , 

— Ja. ^iacpbcrson, ob. \ 



% 



99 



1800 



ISO! 



V ote of the Irish House of Commons agree- 
Hig to the Union %vith England, Februa- 
ary 5.— Similar vote of \he House of 
Lords, 17. 

Bonaparte defeats the Aushians in the bat- 
tie of Marengo in Italy, June 14. 

Armistice between the French and Austrians 
m Lermany, July 1.5, I 

The new Pope, Pius Vlf. restoi-ed to his' 
government by the Emperor, July ^5 j 

Malta taken by ilie British forces, Septera- 
ber 5, j 

Fir-st meeting of the Imperial Parliament of 

, l:.reat Britain and Ireland, January. 

Mr. Hitt resigns, after being minister 18 yearsi 
Pebniary 9;~Mr. Addingtoa Chancellor oil 
file Exchequer. ' 

Battle of Alexandria.— The French defeated 
March^L ^^''^'^' ^^^-<^^'ombi. killed, 



1797 Edm. Burke, ob. 
— \Val.Minto,J/af/<.fiAj 

■Kev.\Vill.Masoii,y^(?. 

ob. 

■Dr. JamesHutton,&^J 
— Hor, Wi^lpole, Earl 

of Or ford, ab. 
— Dr, 'I'issot, ob. 
— Jos.Wright,Pm?J^.o/^ 
— Dr. Ilich. Farmer,oZ/. 
—Dr. Enfield, ob. 
— C. Macklin, Com.ob. 
1798Duke deNiveruois. 

ob. 
—Dan, Webb, ob. 

-Dr. Edw. Waring.ofi. 

■J.Z. Holwell, o6, 
—P. F. Suhm, ob. 
— W. Wale, F. R. S.ob. 
— J. Reinh. Foster, ob. 
; — J. H. Arzenius, ob. 
I — J. P. Panctou, ob. 
—Rev. C. M. Crache- 

rode, ob. 
— L. Galvani, ob. 

— Wiil.Seward.F. R.S.I 

ob. 

1798 C, Borda, ob. 
—Rev. Jos. Tucker, ob. 

1799 WiM.Me!molh,67y 
— Lord Monboddo, ob. 
— Dr. Cii. Morton, 

F. R, S. 66. 
—Jos. Straugq^^I^. L. D. 

ob. "' 

—Jos. Towers, L.L.D. 

ob. 
— Df. Josepit Black,&i. 

1800 Bry. Edwards, od., 
— Hou.Daines Barring- 
ton, ub. 
-Will. Cruikshank, 

I Anat. oh. 
j— J. B.LeRoy, ob. 
— C. Girtannier, ob. 
— W. Cow{.er, Poet,cb. 
— .L S. Montucls, ob. j 
— Rev.J OS. W arton, Po. I 
ob. I 

— Dr. D. Lysons, oh. \ 
— P. A. Guvs, ob. 
—Rev. Wi!J.Taskei',o5! 

— M. ;.\Ia!ict du Pan,o6.^ 
--Rev.^r. Thomas, o6.; 



439 



CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. 



A.D 
1801 



The Enipeior Taul deihroned and put to 
death. — Alexander I. Emperor of Russia, 
March 23. 

Battle of Copenhagen. — The Danish fleet 
taken and destroyed by Lord Nelson, 
April 3. 

Taking of Cairo by the British troops, May 
11. 

Aitxandria surrendered to the British troops, 
August 27. 

Preiiiiiinaries of Peace signed between Great 
Britain and France, October 1. 

Savoy made a department of France, Novem- 
ber 19. 



I lUtisirimts Persons, ' 



1802 



1 805 



ISOOJ. Bap. MunoS) o6. 
—Rev. Dr. H. Biair,o6. 
— M. de Guignes, oh. 
— Rev,Jas.Macnight,oi 
1801 Sir Geo. Staunton, 

— Ro. Orme, Hist. ob. 
— C. Lavater. ob. 
— T. Malton, Math.ob. 
— Dr. W.Heberden,o6. 
— Rev. W. Drake, ob. 
— Prof. Jo. Millar, ob. 
— Gilb. Wakefield, ob. 



Mutiny in Admiral Mitchell's fleet in Bantry 

Bay, January 15. 
The Catholic religion re-established in France, 

March. 
The Definitive Treaty with France signed at 

Amiens, March 27. 
Bonaparte elected Chief Consul for ten years, 

>,Iay. 
The Parlianaent dissolved, June 20. 
Tlie King of Sardinia resigns his crown to 

his brother, July. 
Piedmont annexed to France. July. 
Bonaparte declared Cliief Consul for life, 

Jnly. 
The Prince of Orange renounces the ofiice 

of Stadtholder, August. 
Paswan Oglow submits to the Porte, Novem- 
ber. 
A new Parliament meets, — Mr. Abbot 

elected Speaker of the Commons, No. 

vember IG. 
Switzerland finoUy snbdued by the French 
Execution of Colonel Despard for high trea 

son, Febniary. 
The militia of the United Kingdom called out 

and embodied, March. 
The Emperor of Germany ratifies the new 

organization of Germany, April. 
Dissolution of the Peace with France 

Lord Whitworth, ambassador, quits Paris, 

May. 
The French seize Hanover, .]nne 4. 
Insurrection in Dublin. — Ilabeas Corpus sus 

pemleil, and martial law procb^iraed, July, 
Treaty between Great Britain ant Sweden, 

August. 
Defeat of Row Scinda and Berar Rajah at 

Ajunty pass by General Wel'esiey. 
The British troops enter Delhi, and the Great 

Mogul puts himself under protection of Ge 

neral Lake, September, 
Murder of the Duke d'Enghien by order of 

Bonaparte, 15th Mai-ch 
Mr. Pitt resumes his situation as Prime Min- 
ister. lOlh May. 
Bonaparte proclaimed Emperor of the 
1 French, 20lls May, 



1802 Arth. 0'Leary,o6, 



— Earl of Clare, ob. 
—Wei bore Ellis, ob. 
— Ld. C. J.Ko4iyon, ob 

— M. de Calonne, ob. 
— Erasmus Darwin, 

M . D. ob. 

■John Moore, M.D. 

ob. 



1804 



1803Earl of Bristol, J5p. 

of Derby, ob. 
— Dr.JamesBeattie,oZ>. 
— Dr. John Erskine, 

D. D. oh. 
— Joseph Priestly, 

L. L. D. ob. 



ISOiAdmiralLordDun 

can, ob. 
—Rev. Rob. Potter, ob, 



CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. 



437 



AJ2. 

1804 



1805 



1806 



1807 






Illustrious Persons. 



Dessaiines in St. Domingo decUres himself 

Emperor of Hayti, October. 
The Pope arrives at Fontainbleau, and has 

an interview with Bosaparte, November. 
The Spaniards declare war against Great 1805 Earl of Eoslyn, 

Britain, January. ^ (LcL Chancellor, )ob.. 

Union of the Genoese or Ligurian Republie — Prof. John Robison, | 

with France declared, February. L. I^. D. ob. \ 

Bonaparte assumes the title of King of Italy,! — Artliar Murphy, Po. 

March. I ob. 

Impeachment of Lord Melville, which ter- — Will. Paley, D. D. 

minated in his complete acquittal. ob. 

Defeat of the Spanish fleet by Sir Robert U- Jas, Currie, M.D. ob. 

Calder, July. 
Lord Nelson defeats the fleets of France and — Patrick Russel, 

Spain at Trafalgar.— Takes -ZO sail and is M. D. ob. 

killed in the engagement, 2lst October. — John Clark, M.D. ob. 



Sir R. Strachan takes four French ships of the 

line, off Cape Ortegal, 4th November. 
The French defeat the Austro-Russian army 

at Austerlitz, December 2. 
Death of William Pitt, 23d January. — His 

debts discharged, and a statue decreed to his 

memory at the public expense 
Admiral Duckworth captures and destroys 

five French ships ol the line, February 6 
Louis Bonaparte proclaimed King of Holland, 

June 5. 
The House of Lords concurs with the Com 

mons in the resolutions for abolishing the 

slave trade, June. 
Sir Joha Stuart defeats the French under 

Regnier at Maida in Calabria, July 
Surrender of Buenos Ayres to General 

B^esford and Sir Home Pophara, July, 
French squadi'oa of five frigates defeated 

and captured by Sir Samuel Hood, Sep- 
tember. 

Death of Charles James Fox, Sept. 13. 
Rupture of the Negotiation for Peace with 

France, and return of Earl Lauderdale, 

October, 
Parliament dissolved, and a new one called, 

24th October. 
The French defeat the Prussians ia the great 

battle of Jena, which annihilates the Prus 

sian power, October 14. 
Hamburgh occupied by the French under 

Mortier, November. 
Bonaparte declares the British Isles in a state 

of blockade, November. 
Recapture of Buenos Ayres by the Spaniards. 
The slave trade abolished by act of Parlia 

ment, February. 
The King changes the ministry. — Mr. Per- 
ceval Chancellor of the Exchequer, March 
Parliament dissolved after a session only ofi 

four months, April. 
Dantzic taken by the French, May. 
<s# Revolution at Coustantinople, Sultan Selim 

38 



—Prof. J. F. aGmelin, 

ob. 
M. Jullen, Sculp, ob. 

1806 E. Edwards, ob. 
—Prof. And. Dalze!,e^, 



l80rN. DesEnfanSjoi. 

Geo. Atwood, ob. 

— John LoekraaR, D.D, 
ob. 



438 



CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE, 



.A.D. 



Illustrious Ftrsons. 



1808 



deposed, and Sukau Mustaplia proclaimed, 
May. 
1S07 Battle of Friedland. — Russians defeated by 
the French, June 14. 
Peace signed at Tilsit between France and 

Russia and Prussia, June. 
The Turkisli fleet defeated in the Archipe- 
lago by the Russians, July. 
Copenhagen bombarded, and all the Danish 
fleet surrendered to the British, Septem- 
ber 7, under Lord Cathcart and Admiral 
Gambler. 
The British evacuate South America, Sep- 
tember. 
The British troops evacuate Egypt, October. 
The Piiiice Regent and Royal Family of Por- 
tugal embark for Brazil, Nov. 29. 
rhelsland ot" Madeira surrenders to Great 

Britain in trust for Portugal, Decen^ber. 
riie French prohibit all commerce with 

Gj'cat Britain, January. 
A new French nobility created by Bonaparte, 
Januaiy. 

: The French troops enter Rome, and seize 

the l*ope's dominions, February. 
Fredeiwk VI. King of Denmark, March. 
Chailes IV. abdicates the crown of Spain to 

his son Ferdinand Vli. xMurch 19. 
The French under Murat enter Madrid, 
March 23. 

] British goods prohibited to be imported into 

Russia, April. 
Ferdinand VII. is compelled to renounce the 
throne of Spain, and is sent with the Royal 
Family to Paris. — Murat declared Lieu- 
tenant-General of Spain. — The Junta of 
Seville declares war against France, May. 
Joseph Bonaparte proclaimed King of Spain, 

June 16. 
The Portuguese arm against the French. — 
The Spanish patriots solicit aid from Great 
Britain, June. 
^ The Grand Seignior Mustapha deposed 
Mahomet VI. Turkish Emperor, July 28. 
Battle of Vimiera in Portugal. — -The French 
under Junot defeated by Sir A. Wellesley, 
August 21. 
Convention at Cintra, August 30. 
Conference held at Erfurth between the Rus- 
sian Emperor Alexander and Bonaparte, 
September 2". 
The Ports of Holland shut against Britain, 
Norember 27. 
1809 Battle of Corunna.— The French defeated 
— Sir John Moore kille;!. — The Britisl 
army re-embark for Eusiand, January 16. 
riie Duke of York accused before the Com- 
mons of malvGi'sation in office as Com 
raandev-in-Chief. — Ac{iuitted, March IT. 



808 Bp. Rich.HurdjoJ. 
-Alex. Dairy mple, 

Geog. ob. 
-Rev. John Brand, oh, 
—Dr. Alex. Hunter, 

M.D. ob. 



1809 J. Von Muller, i 
Hist. ob. ' 

-Alex. Adam, L.L.I 
ob. 



CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. 



439 



A. p. 

i8oa 



1 11 u unions Persons. 



1810 



1810 W.Windham, ob 
— Admiral Ld. Collinjj- 

wood, ob 
— Ijishop of Elphin, ob. 



— The 6Jountess de 
LHIe, Ciiife of Louis 

xvni.j oi>> 



Gustavus King of Sweden deposed, March 

13. 
The French fleet in Casque Roads destroyed 

by Lord Cochrane, April 12. 
The Austrians defeated by the French in 

the battles of liatisbon and Eckmuhl, April) 

20«— 23, I 

Senegal surrendered to the British, Julj^ 20. 
The battle of Talavera, in which the Frencli 

are defeated bv Sir Arthur Wellesley, 

July 27. 
The island of Walcheren taken by tlie British, 

July 31.— Evacuated, Nov. 24. 
The 50th anniversary of the King's reign, 

celebrated as a jubilee, October 25. 
The French fleet in the Mediterranean de- 
feated by Lord CoUingwood, October. 
Bonaparte divorces the Empress Josephine, 

January 16. 
Amboyna surrenders to a British squadron, 

January 17. 
A French decree was Issued, unitinc; Rome — Queen of Prussia, o6, 

to J'rance, Fcbruaiy 17. — Princess Amelia, ob, 

Gnadaloupc, the last of the French West 

India islands, surrenders to the British, 

March 5. 
Marriage of Bonaparte with Princess Maria 

Louisa of Austria, April 1. 
Sir Francis Burdett committed to the Tower 

for a libel on the House of Commons, 

April 5. 
An attempt made to assassinate the Duke of 

Cumberland. Sellis, the Duke's valet, 

found with his threat cut, jMay 31. 
Louis Bonaparte abdicates the throne of Hol- 
land, July 1. 
The isle of Bourbon taken by the British, 

July 8. 
Holland united to the French empire, July 9. 
Bernadotte chosen Crown Prince of Sweden, 

August 21. 
Murat's army in Sicily defeated by General 

J. Campbell, September 18. 
Battle of Busaco. — The French defeated by 

Lord WeilingtoUj September 27. 
The first meeting of the Cortes in Spain 

since the usurpation sf Bonaparte, Septem- 
ber 28. 
All British merchandise burnt in France, 

October 19. 
His majesty afflicted with a similar indisposi- 
tion to tliat with whicli he was confined in 

1788: and the same announced to both 

Houses ot Parliament, November 1. 
Tbe deposed Gustavus of Sweden arrived in 

England, November 1 1. 
Isle of France captured by General Aber- 

cromhy and Admiral Bertie, Dec. 3. 
Lucien Bnnaparte, and iiis family, arrived in 

England from Malta, Deo. !'3. 



-Richard Porson, ob. 



440 



CURONOLOGICAL TABLE. 



H; 



riisfriOHs t'ertons. 



1811 A ilcpuuiion from tlie Lords and Common 
I waited on the I'rinte ot' AValcs with an ad 
dress, praying his Ko\nl Highness to accciit 
of the Kcgency, under certain iiinilalions 
and restrictions, Jnnuary 10. 

Parhrimeiit opcneil by commission under the 
t;re:U seal, January 15. 

Dreadful massacre in Cairo, in which about 
iGuO Mamehikes lost their ii\c8, Mnrch 1. 

Battle of Rurrosa. — I'he Trench defeated b} 
General Ciraliaui, March 5. 

The Kmpress of France, Maria-Louisa, de- 
livered of a son, who is styled King of 
Home, March -^0. 

Island of Anholt attacked by a Danish forcL- 
of nearly iOOO men ; but are repulsed by 
a l»ritis'h force of 150 men, under Capt. 
Maurice, leavii:'; behind them 500 prison- 
ers, Martli 27. 

Rattle of Albuera.— Tkc French under Sonll 
defeated by General Hercstord, with the 
loss of «J006 men, May 16. 

JKiniptinn of a volcano in the sea, off ihi 
islan<l of St. Michael, June. 

From the cxcessire heat in July, condagra- 
tii.ns took place in the forests nl" the Tyrol,! 
by which 04 villages with 10,' f'o head ol 



1811 Marquis of Uonia-' 

na, ob. 

Duke of Albuquer- 
que, ob. 

■UiehardCumberland, 

JJrcwiatic and JiiJ- 

celi. Jf'ritery ob. 

Lord Melvill«, yb. 

•Dr. Percy, Jiis/iop oj 

J)romofe, ob. 
— Prince George of 

Brunswick, ob. 
— Rev. James Gra- 

hame, J^oet^ ob. 

John Lcyde:i, M. D. 

ob. 
— Albanis Beaumont, 

Tvav. ob. 

A<Itiiiral Sir Peter 

Parker, ob. 
— Matth. Baine, D.D. 

tb. 
—P. S.Pallas, M.D.oi. 
H. K. Keyuolds, M. U 

ob. 
Dr. Alex. Anderson, 

ob. 



caule were destroyed, and about 34,0(Ki(;. IL Trve, F.R.S. oft, 



persons depr^ed of habitations. 
The Frentli island of Java capitulated to tl»e 

Brilish arms, Au;:;u9t 8 
JFeudal rights abolished in Spain, Aug. 10. 
jA comet ujipe:irc<l in Fjiglaud, Sept. 1. 

■' JA fire at Kmanuel College, Cambridge : loss 

estimated at 'Jo,'!t)0l. October 1 i. 

Serious riots at Nottingham ; jourrcvmen 

weavers destrojinj: articles of machinery 

which diminisl'.ed the demand for labour, 

Nov. lf». 

Dreadful murders of two families (Marrand 

I Williamson) near Uatdiilc I ligh way. Dec. 

I 8. and 10. 

181CCii:da<I Hoihigo taken by storm, Jan. 1?, by 

J I^rd Wellington, v ho'is thereupon created 

1 Duke ofCiiidud llodrigo 

; .Mr. Walsh, a stock-broker and M. P.g for 

Wotton-Basset, haviug been convicted ol 
f'.l.Miv, in embezzling about 15,0001. the 
property of Sir Thomas Plomer, was ex- 
pelled the Iloiise of Con^mons, March 5. 

'Destructive earthquake at Caraccas, Jkc 

March 20. 
fJadajMz taken hy sto^in, April 6. 
Dreadful rrupliou of a Volcano at St.jVin- 

eent's, April .30- 
Tiie Right lion. Si)cnccr Perccv.al, Prime 
Minister of (ireat Britain, was assassinated 
in the Douse ofCotnmons by John Belling, 
ham, May 11. 
.Baltic of Salarcanca, July 22 j^on the receipt 



Field Marshal Count 
Walniodeu Gimborn, 

9b. 



1812 Ccncr.ll Sir J. H. 

('r.'»ig, K. B. ob. 
— KdwardDastedj/y/i/. 

oh. 
— Theoph. Jones, Ifist. 

ob. 
— Admiral Sir Charles 

Cotton, ob. 
— M.GarthshorcjM.D. 

oh. 
— John HorneTooke, 

ob. 
— f*.J. dc Loutherburg, 

ob. 
— Robert Willan,M.D. 

ofj. 
— Right Hon. Spencer 

Perec val^ occ. 



CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. 



441. 



'A. 1) 



181 'J 



ISl; 



of the inteHi;^cnce ot" which, thei-e were ge 
neral illuiniuatioas in Loudon three succes- 
sive nitfhts. 
Madrid captured by the British, Aug. 1'2. 

Snioleusko entered by the Frencli, Aug. 18. 
The siege ot" Cadiz raised by the French, 
Aug. 25. 

Seville cajitured by the British, Aug, 27. 

Battle of Moskwa, Sept. 7. 

The French entered Moscow (three quar- 
ters of which, however, the Itussiaiis had 
previously destroyed by fire,) Sept. 14. 

Tl)e new Theatre Royal, Drury-lane, opened 
Oct. 10. 

General Brock defeated the American army 

in Canada, with the loss of his own lii"o,j — Ed. Jerniiigham, oA. 
Oct. 1;J. — Prince Kaunitz, od. 

The [)assage of the Berezyna cost the French 
20,000 men, Nov. '28. 

Tlie Prince liegent opened the Session of 
Parliament in person, Nov. .30. 

A •29th Bulletin <>( the French army, pre- 
senting a dreadful picture.of tlieir sufier- 
ings in the retreat from Kussia, is dated 
Moiodetchino, Dec. .'^, 

Bonaparte arrives in Paris at midnigiit, Dec. 
IS ; having qiUlted his clefcated and ruineil 
army in Russia, and travelled incoj. 

V. Declaration issued by the British Uovern 



lllustriuus Frr.sons- 



1812 Dr.Darapier, Bp. 

of Ely, ob. 
— Kdraond Ma]one,o6. 
— Hev. Lewis Dutuns, 

ob. 
— C. S. Sonnini, ob 
— Admiral de Winter, 

ob. 
— Rd. Kirwan, F. R. S. 

oh. 
—Dr. C. L. Willde- 

nouw, Bot. oh. 
— Christopher Gottlieb, 

Heyne, ob. 

Gen, Vallancey, ob. 



— Karl of Tyrconncl, 
ob. 



ISU \.F.Ty tier, Lord 
ment respecting the causes and origin ofl Woodhcmselee, oh. 

— Count Zinzemlorlf, 

oh. 

—Duchess of Bruns 
wick, ub. 

— X. Schiavonetti, 
EnPT. ob. 



the war with America, Jan. •), 

A Concordat was signed «t Fontainbleau, be- 
tween Bonaparte and the Pope, Pr.is VII 
Jan. '2.1. 

Lewis XVIIT. publislipd an Address to the 
People of France, Feb. 1, 

The Russian troops entered Hamburgh, 
March 18. 

\ treaty of iilliance is formed between Rus- 
sia and Prussia, March. 

Bonaj)ai te again lelt l^aris for the seat of 
•war (having tirsl formally constituted Ma 
ria-Louisa Empress Regent during his ab- 
sence.) Aitril \5. 

.\ decree of ilie Spanish Cortes, for abolish 

\ ing the Inquisition in Spain, was carried in- 
to effect, April. 

R.ud • of LuLzen, ^^ay 2. 

An official statement (>y tlio Russian Govern- 
ment estimates the loss of the FriMicli atid 
their allies, in their invasion of Ru^tsla, a.s 
fnllnws-, — Killed, !2l fJenerals, 20)0 .Staff 
and other officers, 204,400 rank and tile j 
Prisoners, 4.3 Generals, 3441 Staffand other 
officers, 2.>.3,222 rank and file ; Taken, 
1131 pieces of cannon, 03 pairs of colours 
and standards, one Marshal's Staff, about 
100,000 muskets, and about 2r,000 ammu- 
nition-wagons. The horril)!e sufferings ol 
the French army in its disastrous retreat 
from Russia, by the effects of the frost, 

38* 



-Baron G. 
ken, oh. 



A. Nol. 



— General Fitzpatrick, 

oh. 
— Vice-.\dniiral Ben- 

tinck, ol>. 



Prince of Smolensko, 
(fJcneral Kulusolf,) 
ob. April 28. 



44S 



CMPtONOLGGieAL TABILE. 



A.D., 



Illustrious Persom. 



1813 



may be inferred fi-om the stalementt that| 
in the three jrovernments ot" Moscow, 
Witepsk, and Molnlow, '253,000 dead bo-| 
dies, and in the city of Wilna and its euvi-l 
rons 53,000, had been burned so early asi 
the '27th of Marcli. | 

The Regency ot Spain issued a Manifesto! 
against the Pope's Nuncio in Spain (Peter 
Gravina, Arclibishop of Nicea,) who by se- 
cret letters to the I3isho[)S and Chapters 
had endeavoured to excite iheni to refuse 
publishiiig in their respective dioceses the 
law abolishing the Inquisition, April 23. 
The newly-ereated law-officer, called Vice-I , „. , . ., , 
Chancellor of Great Britain, bir Thomas^^^h' ***S^J "^'^^ ^^^^^ 
Plomer, sat for the first lime at Lincoln's- ^^rry, ob. 
Inn Hall, May 1. 
The Catholic Bill thrown out in a committee 
of the House of Commons, by a majority of 
Jour ; the numbers being 247 for it ; 251 
against it, May 24. 
Account arrived of the occupation of Ham- 
burgh by the Frencli, June 4. 
The great battle of Vittoria in Sj)ain ; in 
which the Martjuis of Wellington totally 
defeated the French army under Joseph 
Bonaparte and Marshal Jourdau, with im- 
mense loss of men, 115 i)ieccs of caonon 
415 wagons of ammunilidn, all their bag 
2;age, pi'ovisioiis, treasure, 8cc. and the 
French commander's baton of a Maishal of 
P^rance, and drove them within the French 
frontiers, June 21. For ibis service the 
Marquis was made a Field Marshal in the 
Biitish army. — London and Westminster 
were illuminated three successive nights. 
The foreign paijers announced, that a confer- 
ence had taken place between the Emj»e- 
ror of Russia, tbe King of Prussia, and the 
Crown Prince of Sweden, at Truchenberg, 
which lasted three days, Aug. 3. 
The Prince of Orange ariived with dispatclies 
from Lord Wellinston, announcing the to- 
tal defeat of Marshal Soult, in Spain, with 
the loss of 15,000 men, and his retreat into 
France, Aug. 16. 
St. Sebastian ttikcn hy storm, Aug. 31. 
Great battles fought at Dresden i in whicli 
Gen. M<jreau was mortally wounded, Sept. 
4, and 5. 
Dispatches from Lord Wellington detailed his 

entrance iulo France, Oct. 18. 
Leipsic taken, Oct. lU. Bonajiarte who com 
mandcd in person, lost upwards of 80,000 
men, and ISO pieces of cannon. 
Fall of Pampeluna, Oct. 51 . 
Intelligence received of a counter-revolution 

in Holland, Nov, 21. 
News arrived of the surrender of Dresden by 
Marshal St. Cvr. with 25,000 mtn, Nov. 
25, 



CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. 



44^ 



I A. D. 



Illustrious Persons. 



I8li A tair on the Tliaraes, the surface beiug fro- 
zen over above the bridges. The whole 
space between BlackiViars and London 
Bridges was covered with spectators, Feb. 
4. 

The Custom-House in Thames-street des- 
troyed by fire, Feb. 13. 

Lord Wellhigion took possession of Bour- 
deaux, and the inhabitants declared for the 
Bourbons, March 8. 

The Emperor of Russia at the head of his 
troops, and the allied Sovereigns, entered 
Paris ; which was, by a capitulation, recom- 
mended to the generosity of the Allies, 
March 31. 

The Conservative Senate at Paris decreed, 
that Bonaparte had forfeited the right to 
rule in France, and released all persons 
from their oath of allegiance to him, April 



1814 Sir Peter Parker 

killed in America. 
Queen of Sicily died 

suddenly at Vienna. 
General Ross killed in 

America. 
Ifflam), the German 

aetor and dramatist, 

ob. 



onaparte renounced, for himself and his 
Jieirs, the thrones of France and Italy ; and 
Paris invited tlje immediate return of the 
House of Bourbon, April 5. 

Lewis XV'in. made his public entry into 
London, from Hartwell, April 21. 

Bonaparte embarked at Frejus for Elba, 
April 2&. 

The King of France made his entry Into Pa- 
ris, May 3. 

Peace between England and France signed 
at Paris, May 30. 

The Allied Sovereigns entered London, June 
8. 

Lord Cochrane and others found guilty of a 
conspiracy to commit a fraud, June 9. 

The allied Sovereigns, with the Prince Re- 
gent, went in great slate to a banquet pre- 
pared by the Corporation of London at 
Guildhall, June 18. 

Lord Cochrane expelled the House of Com- 
mons, July 5. 

The House of Commons having voted 50,0001. 
a year to the Princess of Wales, she wrote 
a letter to the Speaker, declining to accept 
more than 35,0001. July 5. 

Thanks of the House of Commons voted to 
the Army and Navy for their conduct dur 
ing the late war, July 0. 

The Prince Regent, and both Houses of Par 
liaraent went in grand procession to St 
Paul's to a public thanksgiving for the resto 
ration of peace, July 7. 

A Grand Dinner given by the Corporation of 
London to tbe Duke of Wellington on hi: 
return to England, July 9. 

Lord Cochrane was again returned lo Parlia 
mcnt for Westminster, without opposition 
JrJ.y 16. 
""~~ The lestoralion of the Inquiaitlon proclaimed 



444 



CHftONOLOeiCAL TABLE. 



A. D. 



1814 



Illustrious Persons, f 



1815 



at Cadiz, iu the name of Fcrdinapcl VII. 
July 18. 

A. grand Jubilee Festival, in celebration of 
the Peace, and the centenary of the acces- 
sion of the House of Brunswick. A Tern- 
pie of Concord and splendid iirewovks ex- 
hibited in St. James's and the Green Parks. 
A representation of naval actions on the 
Serpentine River. A fair in Hyde Park, 
which conti^^-:c,'d twelve days, August 1. 

The Pope issued a Bull for re-establishing the 
order of the Jesuits, Aug. 7. 

The Princess of Wales embarked for the 
Continent, Aug. 9« 

Formal expulsion of Lord Cochrane from the 
Order of the Bath, Aug. 12. 

Union of Norway to Sweden, Aug. 14. 

Federal Compact of tl-.e Swiss Cantons con 
eluded and accepted, Aug. 16. 

Peace proclaimed between France and Spain, 
Aug. 20. 

The city of Washington taken, and the public 
buildings destroyed, by the British Army 
under General lloss, Aug. 24. 

The Duke of Wellington presented to Lewis 
XVIllth,as \rabassadorfrom GreatBritain, 
Aug. 2i-. 

Arrival of different Sovereigns at Vienna, to 
ftirm a Congress, Sept. 26. 

Great disturbances in Spain : General Mina, 
at t!ie head of four of his battalions, at 
tempted to take Pampelun.^ ; but was un- 
successful, and ilfd to France, Sept. '26. 

Charies XII F. King of Sweden, proclaimed 
King of Norway by the Diet at Christiana, 
Nov. 4. 

The first meeting of the Assembly of the 
kingdom of Hanover was opened by the 
Duke of Cambridge, Dec. 15. 

Treaty of Peace between England and Ame- 
rica signed at Ghent, Dec. 24. 

Joanna Southcott died ; and, with her, the 
hopes of the promised S/iiloh, and all her 
other prophecies^ Dec. 27. 

The Prince Itegent conferred the Order of 
the Bath (divided into three classes differ- 
ing in degrees of rank, viz. Knights Grand 
Crosses, Knights Commanders, and Knights 
Companions,) on the Officers serving in the 
Peninsula, Jan. 2. 

English Journals prohibited at Madrid, Jan. 24. 

The Duke of Wellington arrived at Vienna, 
as Plenipotentiary at the Congress, Feb. 2, 

The Ctiancellor of the Exchequer abandoned 

the Property Tax. Feb. 20. 
Bonaparte sailed from Elba, bound to France, 

Feb. 26. 
Bonaparte landed, with 1000 men at Cannes, 
between Frejus and Antibes ; and was pro- 
claimed a traitor by Lewis JsiYilL March 1. 



1815 The Duke of Dor 
set killed in Ireland, 
by a fall froui his 
horse. 

— Saml.Whitbread,esq. 
M. P. ob. 

—The Duke of St. Al- 
ban's, ob. 

— TheDuke of Norfolk, 
ob. 



CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. 



446 



A. n. 

1§15 



Jtiuitrious Persans, 






Kiots in London, occasioned by Uie Corn Biil, 

March 6. » 

The following Treaties of Peace were laid 
before Parliament : viz. with Denmark, 
Spain, and tlie United States of America, 
March 17. 

Bonaparte took possession of Paris, March 21. 

Accounts arrived, that the Prince of Orange 

had been proclaimed King of the Nether 

lands, March 21, 

Marshal Ney formed a junction with Bonaparte, 

March '^i, \ 
The Abercrombie,East Indiaman, wrecked off 

Portland : crew lost. March 26. 
An attempt made by Margaret Moore to 
steal tiie Crown from the Tower, Mar. 3i 
Bonaparte made an Overture of Peace to 

England, April 4. 
Ferdinand VII. visited the tribunal of the In 
quisition, and occupied three hours in view- 
ing the prisons, &c. April 14. 
The Emperor of Austria proclaimed himself 
also King of Lorabardy and Venice, April 
15. 
Bonaparte left Paris to meet the forces of t^e 

Allies, May 2. '"" 

The three Legatiens restored to the Pope, 

May 29. 
MEMon>Bj.E Battlb op Watebloo. Bona 
parte fied. The Duke of AVellington's horse 
vi'as killed under him. The Duke of Bruns 
wick (brother to the Princess of Wales) 
was mortally wounded, June 17, 18. 
The King of Sicily re-entered Naples, (the 
intrusive King, Murat, having fled,) after 
an absence of nine years, June IS. 
A brilliant and general illumination in Eng. 
land, on occasion of the battle of Waterloo, 
June 22. 
Bonaparte issued a Pi^oclamation, calling on 
the French to save the honour and inde- 
pendence of the nation ! June 25. 
Paris capitulated with the Allied Powers, 

July 3. 
Lewis XVIII. re-entered Paris, July 8. 
Bonaparte went on board the Belleroplion, 
and gave himself up to Captain Maitland, 
July 1 6, and the next day sailed for England. 
The Belierophon arrived in Torbay, July 24 
Gazette account of the dethronement of the 
King of Candy, and the entire submission 
of Ceylon to the British, Aug. 1. 
Marshal Brune shot himself at Avignon,Aug2 
Bonaparte removed from the Belierophon to 
the Northumberland, commanded by Sir 
Geo. Cockburn, (who sailed the next day, 
bound to St. Helena,) Aug, 7. 
The Allied Sovereigns dined with Lewi 

XVlIi. Sept. 15. 
Col. Labedoyere shot for treason, Sept. 19. 



416 



CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. 



//. n. 



lSi5 



ISIO 



Joachim Miirat .(intrusive King o? Naples, ) 

shot at Pizzo tor rtbenion, Oct 13. ♦ 
Honaparte landed at Si. Helena, Oct. 13. 
Tieatles ot" general Peace sii^ned at Paris, 

Nov. 20. 
An article from Hamburgh (Nov. '29) con- 
tained the Conventiiin ot" tiie AHied Pow- 
ers, upon the distnl)niion ot TO(),U0(),(X)(» of 
franks to be \»aid hy Trance, in discharjj;o 
of the cxpences of the war ; of which 125, 
0<}(»,000 was the sliare of K\igland. 
Marshal Ney was sliot for hij»Ii tnason, ])ec.7. 
Ijavalette (conlernned to death for In^h tr»a- 
son) escaped from the (/OJiciei gerie in his 
wife's apparel ; she remaining iu his place, 
Dec. 2i). 
The Emperor of Russia expelled the Jesuits 

from Petcr8l)urgh and Moscow, Jan. 2. 
Sir U. Wilson, Capt. lUtchinson, and Miv 
Hruce anestetl at l*aris, on a charpo of 
having procnred the escape of Lavalette, 
Jan. 13. 
I'lie shops and stalls in Paris for reading the 
Kiiglisli jcjnrnals, p/dered by the Prenc'i 
government to he'^hui up, Feb. '2. 
riie House of (Joinmons voted a Momiment 
to eoninicnior;<te the services rendered by 
tiic Xhvv, Feb. 5, 
St. Jolin's, Newfoundland, destroyed hy fire, 

Februar}' 10. 
An attempt to renew the Property Tax lost 
in the House of (JomoQoiis by a majority of 
37, March 19. 
rhe Pro])erty Tax explre<l, .\pril 5. 
Sir K. \\'ilson, Capt. Hutchinson, and Mr. 
Bruce, convicted, and seolenced to three 
months imprisonment, Ai»ril 24. 
Princess (Jharlottc of NN'nles manieW to Princt 
Le(jpol«l of .Saxc Cobuurg, at Curlclon 
House, May '2. 
.Massacre of the Christians at Bona by CGOO 

Turks and M(X)rs, Mar '23. 
A siiperl) statue ercctetl in Hlnomsbury Square 
to the memory of Charles JaraM Fox, June 
18. 
Princess Mary married to tlie Duke of Glou- 
cester, July 22. 
Eruption of Mount Vesuvius, preceded by an 

eartlupiake, Aug. 7. 
Lord Cochrane tried for breaking out of pri 

son, Aug. 17. ' . 

Lord Exmouth's victor}' at Algiers : by which 

he abolished Chnstinn .Slavery, Aug. 27. 
IJelvoir Ca^rte malioionslv destroyed by fire, 
at a loss exceeding 120 bOOl. Oct. 25. 
— Duke of Camliridge appointed Governor Ge- 
neral of Hanover, Nov. 2. 
Uiols in London , j^Ir. Piatt shot in the shop 

of Mr. P.eckwiih, a gun-smiliij Dec, 2.' 
lUiots at Sheffield, Dec. 3. • 



Illustrious Persons. 



fli'**' 



Jt 



»vv 



181 ti Judge Heath, ob. 
■The Duchess of St. 
Alban s, and her in- 
fant son the \hike,ob. 

— Judge Le nianc, of). 

— Itich. Prinsley Slie- 
ridan, ob. 

•.Mr. 'I'oiiikins, t/if ce- 
lebrtitcd Penmnn, ob. 

— Frtderick William I. 
King of Wirtcmberg, 
ob. 

—Admiral Sir Roger 
Cm lis, ok. 

—Earl Stanhope, ob. 



CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. 



447 



A. I). 
L81t) 

1817 



Lortl Cochrane released iVoiu imprisonment 

by a penny subscription, Dec. 7. 
The Prince Regent went in state to open the 18 
Session of Parliament. Great tuniHlt in 
St. James's Park ; tlie Royal procession 
being insulted by the populace, and the 
window of the state-carnage broken, Jan 
'28. 
Watson, senior, Preston, Hooper, Sec. arrest 

ed for high treason, Feb. 9. 
New silver coinage issued by government, 

Feb. 13. 
James Monroe, Esq. inaugurated President 
of the United States of America, March 4. 
Habeas Corpus Act suspended, March 7. 
Fojtress of Hatlrass, in the East Indies, cap- 
tured, March. 
Cashnjan, a discharged seaman, executed for 
breaking open Mr. Beckwith's shop on the 
'2d December, 1816, March 1'2. 
The provmce of Pernambuco, in South Amc 
rica, declared itself independent of the 
crown of IJrazil, April 5. 
The Catholic clainis again rejected by the 
House of Commons, by a majority of *24, 
May 9. 
The Portuguese sovereignty re'Cstablished in 

Pernamljuco, May 18. 
Mr. Abljot, S|>eaker of the House oi Com- 
mons, resigned that situation, May 30. — 
Made Lord Colchester, May 31. 
Conspiracy at Lisbon, headed by General 

Gomez Freire de AndiRdc, May. 
Trial of Wooler, editor of the IMack Dwarf, 
for two alleged libels on ih« ministers, in 
that publication. The jury returned a vei 
diet of guilty ; but three of them after- 
wards declaring tfieir dissent, the verdict 
was set asiile. On the seconti indictment 
the defendant was accjuilted, June 5. 
Watson, senior, Thisilewood, Preston, and 
Hooper, brought from the Tower to be 
trieil for High I'reason, June 9. \\''atson*s 
trial lasted till the iGlli ; when the jury 
found him not guilty. The following day, 
the Attorney General declining to prose- 
cute the others, they were acqtiitled of 
course. 

The Waterloo Bridge was opened, with great 

parade, by the Prince Regent anil the 

Dukes of York and Wellington, June 18 

At Gloucester the thermometer stood, at 

noon, ill tlie shade, at lO.j, June 21. 
Mr. KeHible took his leave of tlie stage in tlie 

character o\ Coriolanus, June 22. 
\ proclanjaiion issued onlering the new gold 
coin, called a Sovereign, to pass current at 
'2(),<f. July 5. * ' 
The Dey of Algiers assassinated, Sept. , 

Trials for high treason *t Derby, Oct. lO. 



Illustrious Pfrsons. 



7 The Duke of Marl- 
borough, ob. 
■William Thomson, 
L. L. D. ob. 
■Charles Combe,M.D.' 
¥.n. and A.S.S. ok 
-Marshal Massena, 
Prince of Essling, ob. 
■Cardinal Maury, ob. 
-Werner, mineralo- 
gist, ob. 

-George Ponsonby, 
ob. 

-The Duke of Nor- 
thumberland, ob. 
-Madame de Stael 
Holstcin, ob. 
-Admiral Sir J. T. 
Duckworth, ob. 
-J. P. Curran, ob. 
-Kosciusco, the hero 
of Poland, ob. 
-J. A. de Luc, F.R.S. 
fihysician and philo- 
sopher ^ ob. 
-H. R. H. the Princeso 
Charlotte of Wales, 
ob. 



Aii 



CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. 



A. I). } . 

1817! UrejuUul Imnicane iti tlie West Indies, Oct. 

•21. 
JThe Princess Charlotte of Wales and ol Saxc 

Cobourg die I in ehild-birtli, having been 

delivered of n slill-born child, Nov. G. 
iSiSJChjirlntte of MecklenburKh-Strelitz, Queen 

of England, died N'ovcmber 17, 
Kvacualion of France by the ullied troops, 

November. 



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